Chapter 7 Summary
by Terry Fraser and Jed Stark
Planning and Drafting
Objectives and Outcomes
- Learn the strategies used by experienced writers as they explore, plan, and draft documents, oral presentations and visuals -
- As part of inventing and exploring, use a problem-solving process with proven strategies: brainstorming, 5 Ws plus H, cause-and-effect analysis, and synectics
- As part of planning, consider types of planning, use project-management tools, make decisions about rhetorical elements (content, purpose, task, audience, constraints, organization, and design), assess the logic.
- As part of drafting, select the appropriate person and verb mood, use plain language, avoid density, and use given-new constructions
Experienced writers typically ask whether their documents, oral presentations and visuals are accessible, comprehensible, and usable. In contrast, inexperienced writers tend to be concerned with whether they have enough content, minimize their planning, and not think much about the audience.
The following are steps professionals typically move through during the creative process:
-Inventing and Exploring
-Planning and Organizing
-Drafting and Designing
-Revising
-Editing
This chapter focuses on what happens in inventing/exploring, planning/organizing and drafting, and suggests a number of strategies to help you become more expert-like in these parts of the process. Revising and editing are the focus of the next chapter.
The writing process used to be described in three linear stages: pre-writing, drafting, and revising. Further research has shown that the steps are actually recursive, that is they can happen more than once, and more than one at a time.
It is a good idea to begin your writing process by asking questions. Questions about the context, the subject, the document, oral presentation, yourself and your role(as a writer, speaker or designer), reader or reviewer.Think about each of those possible questions and brainstorm some answers to them. For example: Why am I, the reader, reading this document? What is my previous knowledge on this topic? What do I need to know? What will influence my interpretation? Asking yourself these questions in advance helps you plan and organize your piece for your target audience. (See Fig. 7.5 p238 for an in depth list of questions)
Inventing and Exploring
Communicators spend a lot of time talking to themselves. Inventing ideas and listening to how they sound. You must run over your ideas, look up background references, make observations, do experiments and basically trouble shoot your entire idea until you believe it is at the best it can be.
Problem Solving Process
Effective problem solving can make your work much easier. individuals and groups in the workplace that want to be at their top production follow a problem-solving process. They initially:
1) Identify the context ( politics, policies, parameters for solutions) and the problem (which may be defined differently by different people)
2) They gather and evaluate information in order to set priorities.
3) They then typically formulate alternative possible solutions that may differ from conventional approaches, being careful to defer judgment about the preferred solution.
4) The individuals in the group then draw on their own knowledge and experiences with similar problems in order to determine the preferred outcome for success.
5) They later asses the alternatives and select on plan of action.
6) After finalizing the plan, they get started on the most appropriate, efficient solution, considering technical, organizational, and interpersonal factors.
7) As the solution is implemented, people need to monitor the individual and group performance against the outcome.
8) Now the group can finally evaluate their performance to determine the success of their problem solving process and the final product
Problem Solving Strategies
This chapter focuses on four different strategies for you to hopefully solve your problems.
- Brainstorming
- 5 Ws + H
- Cause-and-effect
-Synectics
We all should know what brainstorming is, the process of bouncing around a bunch of ideas without making a decision until at least a few ideas have been suggested. The 5Ws plus H is a common formula associated with journalism. Many of us i assume have run into this formula in many of or writing classes.
*Who- who is involved?
*What- What is involved? What should be Changed?
*When- When should it be done? when is the most appropriate or convenient time?
*Where- Where should it be done?
*Why- Why should it be done?
*How- How should it be done?
Another effective strategy that is common in quality control circle is the Cause-and-effect analysis, which focuses on the root cause of a certain problem. for a business causes of specific problems can be seperated into four categories, Machine, Employee, Material, and Method. There is a good chart on page 232 to give you an idea what this method involves.
The last problem solving strategy is Synectics. this is coined from the greek word syn, meaning "to bring together," and ectos, for "diversity." Together it suggests that this word means bringing together a diversified opinions or ideas. This encourages workplace professionals to combine unrelated ideas as a way of working with a certain problem. Doing this helps develop new perspectives and solutions. Using a variety of methods, such as metaphors, analogies, role playing, and simulations, the trouble-shooters first define the problem then they put themselves into it and using one of these methods act out the problem and see what they can do about it.
Planning and Organizing
There are three types of planning that experienced writers use prior to beginning drafting:
1. Schema-driven planning
2. Knowledge-driven planning
3. Constructive planning
Schema-driven planning is when you create a document according to an existing format or template. A schema is your knowledge, your mental image of what is expected for the given situation. If you were to write a memo, you know what it would look like, or a cake recipe, or a business letter. There is a certain format to each that is different from the others. Knowing these formats allows you to write what you need with less work on what it should look like, and what kind of information to include.
Knowledge-driven planning is when you have a great deal of knowledge about the topic your are writing about. For knowledge-driven planning to work, your information must be very well organized and to the point. Much like giving an informational speech on something you have a lot of knowledge about, it is easy to wander and follow tangents. Stay on task.
Constructive planning would be used if you have a very difficult writing task. You must use careful analysis of the purpose, audience, task and other constraints to successfully use constructive planning. It will however help to keep you organized, on task, and creating and meeting deadlines. Often, a combination of two or even all three types of planning are used.
Project Planning
Two types of charts can be used to help with time- and project-management: Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) charts and Gantt charts. PERT charts allow you track activities and show how they depend on each other, while Gantt charts use time lines to track activities. Both tools are easy to use with computer software, and can be used to keep all of the team members up to date with project deadlines and percentage complete.
A very important part of planning revolves around the ethics of the situation. No matter how accurate your information, or impressive your design, or how eloquently you speak, if you are perceived as unethical your audience won't think twice about what you have to say. You must find a balance between your personal beliefs and your public positions on your topic(s).
Assessing the Logic
You must make sure that your document is logical. Problems with logic generally fall into four categories:
1. Using data from authorities
2. Presenting facts without drawing inferences
3. Drawing inferences
4. Establishing causal relationships
Using data from authorities usually gets good response from audience members, but only if that authority is well grounded in the topic. Make sure you research the authorities you use, and try to use non-partial ones.
Having facts are great but if you don't show how they logically connect with your topic, they will only serve to confuse the audience.
During your planning, you obtain data and then draw inferences based on that data. Making hasty generalizations could lead to inaccurate inferences. Make sure there are multiple sources giving you the same conclusion, or you may have just happened to pick the only one with that conclusion when in fact the majority go the other way.
Lastly, when using cause and effect, be sure that the effect has sufficient cause. Some causes may be a sufficient cause(only one cause for the effect) or they may also be a contributing cause(cannot stand by itself, but helps other causes to bring about the effect).
Drafting
Drafting is writing of the text and prepping the visuals. There are many different approaches to this stage of the process, each different for writers, or speakers, and designers.
- You may want to create small pieces of the draft during the planning stage, write small notes of key points you don't want to forget and when your planning seems to be done you take these notes, develop them, and fill in the remaining spaces.
- You may sit down and compose or design from beginning to end without interruption.
- You may want to draw up an outline and notes or a rough sketch, using this a guide for when you write or draw, going back to them whenever you find a snag.
- you may generate an online outline or sketch as the framework of your document and then stick to this outline.
- You may want to take your time, work slowly as you ponder and polish your work as you go along and figure it out as you go.
- Or you may take the opposite approach and work very rapidly letting the ideas tumble out onto each other.
The best approach is to try several of these strategies in order to see which one works best for you. Also you need to look at drafting as a continual process, something that you are always doing as you go through your work, you draft as you think of new ideas, it is seldom a "do it once" part of the process.
Selecting Person
Choosing among first, second, or third person relies on the purpose and audience of your presentation or document. First person (I, We) is appropriate when you are narrating events in a sequence where you play a significant role. Second person (You) is normally reserved for instructions where readers are being directed to complete particular actions. Third person (He, She, One, It, They) is the most common, enabling you to emphasize the sequence of action rather than yourself or the readers.
Verb Mood
mood refers to the characteristics of various verbs which show a presenters attitude towards their statement. During your drafting, you should select verbs that convey the mood that is appropriate to the situation
- Indicative mood states facts or opinions or asks questions.
fact nurses us a rectal thermometer to take a baby's temperature
Opinion Child-care providers prefer a thermometer strip rather than a rectal thermometer for taking a baby's temperature.
question Why should child-care providers use a thermometer strip to take a baby's temperature?
-Imperative mood expresses commands or gives a direction.
command (you) Use a rectal thermometer to take a baby's temperature.
direction (you) Get a thermometer from the drawer labeled "Thermometers" in utility room II
- Subjective mood expresses recommendations, wishes, conjectures, indirect requests, and statements of conditions contrary to fact.
recommendation When children are hospitalized, we recommend that parents be wit them. (not are)
Wish I wish the clinic were able to provide more well-baby classes. (not was)
Conjecture If the budget were not cut, we would have electronic thermometers. (not was)
indirect request if the rectal thermometer were to break, a baby could be seriously injured. (not was)
condition The parent asked if the examination were almost over. (not was)
contrary to fact
Process explanations deal with observable, verifiable information which is why is written in indicative mood. however you also need to be able to recognize and use imperative mood and subjective mood in appropriate contexts.
Selecting Active or Passive Voice
Your selection of either active or passive voice depends on your subject, the purpose and focus, as well as your audience. Active voice focuses on the doer of the action and de-emphasizes the receiver, which is appropriate in most situations. Active voice is used more commonly because it is much more interesting to read, more direct, pretty much you would use in every situation unless you have a specific reason not to. Passive voice is usually used when the receiver is more important than the agent. To better understand this concept use the figure on page 248.
Using Plain Language
Plain language makes understanding even the most technical document much easier. You should strive to use plain language whenever possible. Here are some characteristics of plain language:
-Common, everyday words, except for necessary technical terms.
-"You" and other pronouns
-The active voice
-Short sentences
(as described by the presidential order stating all government documents must be in plain language)
Using plain language will increase the comprehensibility and usability of your documents, oral presentations, and visuals.
Avoiding Density
Sometimes you may have one paragraph on a single topic, but there are so many ideas pack into it that it is difficult to see the connection between them. This is an example of a 'dense' paragraph. Here are some suggestions for avoiding density:
-Separate information into several sentences rather than a few very long sentences.
-Develop important points in separate paragraphs.
-Add examples and explanations to illustrate points.
-Use direct diction.
-Add transitions within paragraphs and between paragraphs and sections of a document.
Concerning visual aids:
-Use headings and subheadings to identify key sections.
-Illustrate objects and concepts to aid understanding.
-Use selected visual devices to highlight key ideas: lists, bullets, tables, underlining, italics, boldface.
Using Given-New Analysis
Given-new constructions are when new information is connected to what the audience already knows, either from background knowledge or from immediately preceding text. It is very important to make sure your ideas logically follow one another. It is easy to assume your readers(listeners) know more than they do, so you neglect to include background or connecting information that the readers(listeners) need. Refer to page 253 for some nice examples of given-new analysis.
Documents written with this analysis are typically easier to understand and remember.
23 comments:
Upon writing my senior paper about Immigration Issues my senior English teacher taught us these steps, very similar. The planning step is a huge part of this and getting the right information to support your topic. Working with a similar program I found it easy to write a twenty page paper and get an A. These steps really work and can really improve your writing.
I agree with the section on using plain language when speaking. In doing so the listeners are more likely to understand. I have found from experience that doing this does work unless you really mess it up or you are talking about a really boring subject. Speaking to a group is hard enough and when you try to talk in a way you are not used to makes it that much harder.
Some of the information provided in this chapter is very useful when creating papers or presentations, but a good deal of the information also seems to become too technical. Many of the seemingly complicated concepts and processes that were given are usually things that have either become second nature to me already or are factors that play no part in my creative process. My creative process generally involves the old method of pre-writing, drafting, and revising; whereas the new method they provide seems to become overcomplicated. It may work better for some people, but when I look at the suggested creative process it would just slow me down and make it more complicated than I think it should be.
I agree with greg on the section about using plain language. I was taught to use common, easy to understand vocabulary when speaking or trying to get a point across to an audience. Unless you are all in the same field and have a large vocabulary on the topic you're listening to, it can often create lots of confusion for most people. In my own experience, I have had this problem with some classes in English/ Philosophy where I lost interest in the topic, because I simply didn't understand the context of the professor.
I think it is very effective for a group to develop their ideas individually and then combining them is a very good way to get everyone involved so that no one is left behind. I think it is also important to strongly know your audience in order to please your audience and not offend anyone and better yet, it helps when you know your audience so they better understand what you are talking about. But in any given presentation, paper, etc., I think it is most beneficial to use the steps mentioned in the context.
I agree with the topic of useing plain language. I personaly hate reading documents that have a vocabulary much higher then mine. So when i am giveing a presentation or writeing a paper I try to use vocabulary that every one can understand. The only exception to this would be if you now your audience is well educated in the subject you are speaking on.
I find these techniques handy while doing preparing papers for English. These techniques help you proceed your work step by step in orderly manner. I have found that while writing paper if you use these step(Inventing,Exploring,Planning,Organizing,Drafting,Designing,Revising,Editing) you tend to solve problem quick.
Planning your writing can make things a lot easier when you are actually creating the document. In my freshman year I had to write an 8 page report on Affirmative Action. I would have never been able to write this paper if I had not planned it out. The 5 W's plus H have been a staple of my writing ever since I was first introduced to them in junior high. I believe that everyone should look at their finished product and see if it answers the 5 W's plus H. If all questions are answered, you will have a solid paper.
When writing anything its good to make a plan of attack. this chapter really points out specifics on how to brainstorm ideas make a plan, and impliment them in your work. The steps that were pointed out are really the base on how to produce quality work. Everyone should use this as a basis when it comes to their work.
I agree with using plain language as well. I was looking up articles for my presentation and a lot of them had language I couldn't understand. I got bored with the ones that had vocabulary I couldn't understand. I also liked the section on Inventing and exploring. A lot of the techniques I have heard of and used in other classes. 5W+H is something that has been brought up in many of my other classes.
When first coming up with ideas for a project this chapter gives you hints how to organize it. You have to make sure you are making it for the correct type of people. Also what type of language you are using? And what you want to get across, do you want them to have the same opinion or just inform them of your topic. Most people are not overly confident, so when it comes to finishing up a project they usually ask for a second or maybe even a third opinion.
This chapter was useful in proper ways to organize papers. Starting off by brainstorming is useful. After choosing the subject of the text asking the 5 W's plus the H is important. A lot more goes into planning than one might originally think. You brainstorm, write a rough draft, and revise, but you must take into consideration your audience, visuals, the language (how easy it is to read, the vocabulary), and how to organize the information. I believe if I reviewed this chapter before writing something, I would be more productive and have a more well organized paper.
I agree with a lot of the comments about using plain language. It seems that when people write papers, give presentations, or speak publicly they will use bigger words, big sentences etc, to avoid looking uneducated. However, some of what they have to say will be lost because some people won't understand, plus the speaker/writer isn't used to using those terms and may use them incorrectly. As for planning, I'm guilty of skimping on the planning and jumping right into writing. I tend to plan as I go, and usually run into pitfalls here and there. If I listened to what this chapter had to say and spent more time on the planning side, the writing would go smoother and be better in the end.
I think that the book is right on the use of plain language. I think that way when I read a paper I don't feel like I am not meant to read it when the writer uses a high level of wording for their thoughts. But, if the paper is meant for an audience that is versed in the subject then the use of higher level wording is ok I guess.
The process for problem solving is very important. When a process is implemented and is followed correctly the effiency of the workplace could greatly increase. When a process like the one in ch.7 isnt followed, there could easily be issues overlooked or things left out completely. That is why it is important to have a plan and stick to it.
I think that the chapter gives some good info on what to do to plan out your paper or speech. I think planing is always important because it allows you to see some flaws in your presentation so you can make some changes and it lets you practice what you are going to say about it. With papers, it lets you see how everything will go together to make a whole and to see if it sounds right.
Planning is sometimes hard to do. I find that when I try to plan out my steps to writing a paper or a presentation, I can not follow them. My planning seems to be where I move from front to back, begining to end. This in a sense is my plan to my projects.
Writing a paper has many steps. A very important step is planning and organizing your topic before writing. With anything i have written a draft and then revising is always the prefered method. At work you will alost always do some planning then a draft. Usually nothing is finalized without a revision step.
Planning and drafting is a very interesting topic especially in tech-writing. But when we write we need to draft and plan properly. If one doesn't plan and draft properly, it will be very difficult and hard for them to do a good and accurate writing.
Writing this summary, it seemed that many of the ideas where review from previous writing classes, such as brainstorming the 5Ws+H and so on. Yet these steps are critical to writing a well rounded, well researched paper or presentation. In the past I have forgotten these methods and I'm glad that I was able to refresh my knowledge.
I agree with these steps for better writing. I think that planning is a huge part of writing. If you can plan out either on paper or in your head you can organize your writing much better. I also think that you need to target your audience. If you know what age group or gender you are writing for it is easier to plan and choose your words for your specific audience. The steps outlined in the book will help you better your writing.
I know this is late, but I'm going to comment on it anyway. This is the first chapter that I thought wasn't useful. They took the brainstorming process and made it as drawn out as possible. If this were a project in the real world and you spent this much time just on planning, then you probably wouldn't get it done on time. I think it would be more effective to just get a good idea and run with it.
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