Chapter 11 Summary
Mike Hutton and Cameron Klundt
Information Design
Information Design can be most easily defined as simply the way you organize a document. Burnett explains 5 elements of Information Design that people should be aware of when creating a document
5 Categories of Design
Textual- The characters, such as letters, numbers, and symbols that are used in a document.
Spatial- The white spaces in the document, as well as placement of textual and graphical elements.
Graphic- Visual images, bullets, lines, arrows, punctuation. Any visual aid in a document.
Color and Textural- The details regarding color, such as hue and saturation. Also texture of the surface of document, such as glossy or smooth.
Dynamic- The motion that is implied in a document. The flow that your eyes follow in a document.
Chunking and Labeling Information
Chunking and labeling information creates an easier path for the reader to navigate the document. This involves organizing topically relevant information together. This makes the document flow and makes it easier to understand.
Using White Space to Chunk Information- Once you have deciphered how to organize your document, white space can help you chunk it. There are a few ways to do this:
Margins: the widths of white space on either side, top, and bottom of text.
Alignment: how the text-lines measure up to each other. For example, a fully justified alignment will line up each side of the document, so that each line of text is the same length.
Leading and Line Length: how long the text lines are, and the spacing in between lines. A larger space between lines makes a document easier to read, but creates a longer looking document.
Headings to Label Chunked Information
Used to let the reader easily identify the topic of the upcoming information. Can be a sort of ultra-short summary of the text in that section. Also allow readers to take a mental breath between bits of information.
Arranging Related Chunks of Verbal and Visual Information
When a project is underway it is important to start with a good sold base. The base in Verbal and Visual include how many columns are used and how the pictures are integrated with the text.
Using Design Conventions
When arranging a text it is important to look at the whole page as a grid. This allows an individual to organize the textual and visual chunks. The use of columns is most common. Pages that have one column are often for in-house technical reports, two columns for operation manuals, and three columns for newsletters. How pictures are integrated is important as well. It is preferred to have a picture in with the wording but only if there are a few pictures. Having too many pictures can be distracting.
Avoiding Problems in Arranging Information
Chartjunk- Miscellaneous graphic junk that serves no point
Tombstoning- Making headings to long and posing potential confusion.
Heading placement- Not Having enough space between headings.
Window and orphans- Making sure there are not a few words on the next line resulting in a lot of excess space.
Emphasizing Information
Creating a document or Webpage it is important to make certain information stand out and catch a reader’s eye. There are pre designed web pages that can help you make the right information stand out, in a good way.
Typefaces
When an individual uses a font that affects the reader’s attitudes and reactions it is called typeface.
Serif or sans serif- Most common uses tiny fine lines at the top and bottom of letters.
Typeface variations- Proper selections should influence a reader and should not be difficult to read.
Type Size- Using the proper size font will encourage readers, too large or small will sway readers.
Style Choice- Using different styles including bolding and capitalization can highlight dangers and warnings, will draw attention to important details.
Typographic Devices
It is sometimes needed to distinguish between text with the use of numbered lines, bullets, underlining, boxes, and other various ways.
1.) Number lines are common when a list of instructions is given and a proper order must be followed.
· Bullets are used when all items of a list are equivalent.
Underlining- should only be used for hyperlinks, was originally used in typewriters that did not have a bold or italics keys.
Boxes and shading are used to emphasize information.
Color provides emphasis by allowing information to stand out from the rest of the document.
Sunday, September 30, 2007
Chapter 8
Chapter 8
Revising and Editing
By: Elijah Wreh
Objective and Outcomes:
Differentiate various types of revising and editing and develop the skills required to complete these tasks.
Revise and edit to make documents, presentations, and visuals more accessible, comprehensible, and usable.
Understand that revising is a global function involving complex, interrelated strategies and decisions.
Identify and correct inconsistencies and errors in a draft.
Review a draft of a document that has been carefully edited and then analyze the resulting final version to study the impact of the changes.
Types of Revising and Editing
-Revising primary focus is on intercontinental aspects of the document which include content, organization, argument, and design.
-Substantive editing focuses on global aspects of the document.
-Design review focuses on the overall design of the document.
-Copyediting focuses on global aspects which include logic and format and locals are language conventions along with consistency.
-Proofreading involves eradicating typographical errors in the electronic version without comparing to the original.
-Administrative editing focuses on compliance with the organization’s policies and management of a range of tasks related to electronic.
The Revision Process
Revision of a piece of document or paper play a pivotal role in one writing career; As a matter of fact, when ever one write a paper or a document one need to carefully go over it several times in other to eliminate grammatical errors. Another option could be asking other people who are experts in English to go over your paper for common errors and mistakes. In addition to this, one need to get feedback, make acknowledgment and select strategy.
Redesigning Documents
For this part, one needs to design a pragmatic formula that will help in their revision process. A formula that will give readers the nitty-gritty of what you are actually talking about and meant in your paper or document.
Revision Strategies
As a matter of fact, in other for one to be a successful writer one need to be innovative and creative in their writing styles. This can only be done if one engages in a number of revision strategies that will help them with their document, oral presentation, or visual in a new dimension. Moreover, for this process to be successful and implemented well, one can text changes to encourage re-vision and design changes to encourage re-vision.
Levels of Edit
The word editing means going over a piece of document or paper for grammatical errors. Henceforth, an effective editor can only improves a document’s by going over it at least three to four times and ask other people to go over it too. The term content accuracy is the job of the writer or editor to carefully check on each other for errors. For instance, in the print media there are writers, editors, and editor-in-chief. When the writer writes his stories it is taken to the editorial staff for errors and editing before publication to the general public. The design review basically assures the consistency of all elements of design, from small to large.
Common Copyediting Problems
This aspect of revision and editing include four areas which include: use concrete details, use direct language, use positive phrasing and eliminate wordiness.
-The use of concrete details explains how to use words that are concrete and refer to what actually you are talking and writing about. This will help you make your writing precise and accurate if you use specific details and examples.
-The use of direct language should be simple and very plain. The use of indirect language will result in inappropriate attempt to use inflated or abstract language. So, use words and language that are very easy to understand.
-The use of positive phrasing: effective writers need to put into play positive and good phrasing for several reasons. A good phrasing will send positive signal to the audience.
-The elimination of wordiness: using too many words or the act of wordiness can make your writing difficult to understand because the audience is forced to reinvest through unnecessary wording to read important information.
Proofreading
Before any document is published it has to go through oral presentation and visual approval. One needs to carefully proofread and do a final check. During proofreading, one does not need to add new information and to rewrite. It required a straight check for accuracy and consistency in five different perspectives: mechanical conventions (include punctuation and spelling), grammatical conventions (include grammar and usage), design conventions (include typographical errors and visual displays), disciplinary conventions (include abbreviations and citations) and typographical conventions (symbols and numbers).
Individual and Collaborative Assignments
-Edit sentences for wordiness.
-Revise law to make more comprehensible.
-Use a software editing program.
-Evaluate a software editing program.
-Interview a professional.
Revising and Editing
By: Elijah Wreh
Objective and Outcomes:
Differentiate various types of revising and editing and develop the skills required to complete these tasks.
Revise and edit to make documents, presentations, and visuals more accessible, comprehensible, and usable.
Understand that revising is a global function involving complex, interrelated strategies and decisions.
Identify and correct inconsistencies and errors in a draft.
Review a draft of a document that has been carefully edited and then analyze the resulting final version to study the impact of the changes.
Types of Revising and Editing
-Revising primary focus is on intercontinental aspects of the document which include content, organization, argument, and design.
-Substantive editing focuses on global aspects of the document.
-Design review focuses on the overall design of the document.
-Copyediting focuses on global aspects which include logic and format and locals are language conventions along with consistency.
-Proofreading involves eradicating typographical errors in the electronic version without comparing to the original.
-Administrative editing focuses on compliance with the organization’s policies and management of a range of tasks related to electronic.
The Revision Process
Revision of a piece of document or paper play a pivotal role in one writing career; As a matter of fact, when ever one write a paper or a document one need to carefully go over it several times in other to eliminate grammatical errors. Another option could be asking other people who are experts in English to go over your paper for common errors and mistakes. In addition to this, one need to get feedback, make acknowledgment and select strategy.
Redesigning Documents
For this part, one needs to design a pragmatic formula that will help in their revision process. A formula that will give readers the nitty-gritty of what you are actually talking about and meant in your paper or document.
Revision Strategies
As a matter of fact, in other for one to be a successful writer one need to be innovative and creative in their writing styles. This can only be done if one engages in a number of revision strategies that will help them with their document, oral presentation, or visual in a new dimension. Moreover, for this process to be successful and implemented well, one can text changes to encourage re-vision and design changes to encourage re-vision.
Levels of Edit
The word editing means going over a piece of document or paper for grammatical errors. Henceforth, an effective editor can only improves a document’s by going over it at least three to four times and ask other people to go over it too. The term content accuracy is the job of the writer or editor to carefully check on each other for errors. For instance, in the print media there are writers, editors, and editor-in-chief. When the writer writes his stories it is taken to the editorial staff for errors and editing before publication to the general public. The design review basically assures the consistency of all elements of design, from small to large.
Common Copyediting Problems
This aspect of revision and editing include four areas which include: use concrete details, use direct language, use positive phrasing and eliminate wordiness.
-The use of concrete details explains how to use words that are concrete and refer to what actually you are talking and writing about. This will help you make your writing precise and accurate if you use specific details and examples.
-The use of direct language should be simple and very plain. The use of indirect language will result in inappropriate attempt to use inflated or abstract language. So, use words and language that are very easy to understand.
-The use of positive phrasing: effective writers need to put into play positive and good phrasing for several reasons. A good phrasing will send positive signal to the audience.
-The elimination of wordiness: using too many words or the act of wordiness can make your writing difficult to understand because the audience is forced to reinvest through unnecessary wording to read important information.
Proofreading
Before any document is published it has to go through oral presentation and visual approval. One needs to carefully proofread and do a final check. During proofreading, one does not need to add new information and to rewrite. It required a straight check for accuracy and consistency in five different perspectives: mechanical conventions (include punctuation and spelling), grammatical conventions (include grammar and usage), design conventions (include typographical errors and visual displays), disciplinary conventions (include abbreviations and citations) and typographical conventions (symbols and numbers).
Individual and Collaborative Assignments
-Edit sentences for wordiness.
-Revise law to make more comprehensible.
-Use a software editing program.
-Evaluate a software editing program.
-Interview a professional.
Thursday, September 27, 2007
Chapter 10 Summary
Chapter 10 : Organizing Information
Laura Sanders & Bart HallObjectives and Outcomes:
- Organize information as part of knowledge management
- Use outlines, storyboards, and tables as tools to test various ways to organize information
- Use topic sentences and transitions to signal organization
- Use conventional organizational patterns-whole/parts, chronology, spatial order, ascending/descending, comparison/contrast, cause and effect-to present information verbally and visually
Transforming Information into Knowledge
Turning information into text is sometimes a very messy process. Organizing information is one way you can insure that the information will be correct. Also take into affect the audience(s) when you are in the planning stages. Your goal should be creating an audience-based document or presentation so that readers or views can get an understanding of your topic.
Developing the Organization for Information
Outline: Outlines should stay flexible so you can change things easily without having to rewrite most of your document or visual. Outlines are not intended to restrict you, they are tools used for managing information. Outlines do not need to be formal, you can simply jot down information as you get it. They can be useful in planning, organizing, and drafting your document.
Storyboards: Storyboards have two broad purposes: 1) a powerful organizing tool for writers and designers, and 2) a short, dramatic visual summary showing the gist of the final product. Storyboards are a related sequence of hand-drawn or electronic sketches of pages or screens that organize their critical points. Using a story board can help you plan highly visual projects such as tutorials, training videos, ads, and web sites. They can be either passive or active. A passive storyboard is a simple sequence of thumbnail sketches or screenshots of a web site. Active storyboards usually require the user to be engaged in the process, and example would be power point presentation.
Storyboard Guide Lines:
-Don't invest a lot of time or effort, keep storyboards sketchy.
-Keep them easy to modify.
-Make them interactive if possible.
-Make them early and often, always use them on a protect that is new or innovative.
Tables and Spreadsheets for Organizing Information: These enable you to classify information into comparable groups and identify categories of detail about each group. If you create spreadsheets on the computer you have the advantage of numeric data. You can organize and interpret data using various formulas. Using color in a table is also very critical to many professionals including scientists, designers, and printers.
Implementing the Organization or Information
Alphabetical Order, Numeric Order, and Continuums: Alphabetical order of organization is most useful with such documents as dictionaries, encyclopedias, glossaries, indexes, and phone books. Numeric systems are effective because each item is identified by a single number. A continuum is used to rank or rate objects being used.
Topic Sentences: A topic sentence identifies both the content and organization or a paragraph. Transitions act like glue that connect ideas and sentences within a paragraph. They can also link paragraphs, and relate one section of a document to another.
Whole /Parts Organization: This form of organization uses a relationship of whole parts whether it’s an object, idea, or entire system, and parts of that whole either on a micro level or a macro level. In whole/parts organization, the main idea is to have a clear, well thought out topic sentence which is then broken down into further detail to make the information more comprehensive and accessible.
Chronological Order: This is used when the purpose is to give instructions, describe processes, or trace the development of objects or ideas. This form presents material arranged in an order of sequence occurrence.
Spatial Order: This form involves arrangement by relative physical location and describes the physical parts of almost everything. For example, use of spatial order in the form of a blueprint will give you specification of dimensions for a machined part. It is very useful to have visuals with this kind of organization.
Ascending/Descending Order: Ascending order refers to putting quantifiable criteria in order of least to most important and descending is just the opposite. Types of this organization include a numbered list, bull’s-eye chart,percent graph, bar or line graph.
Comparison/Contrast: This type of organization will tell you the similarities or differences of a certain, topic, idea, or situation. Comparison will show the similarities and contrast will give you various differences. Some forms used in this specific type of organization may include paired photos, multiple or paired graphs, or a table.
Cause and Effect: This form deals with factors and results which can be moved from cause to effect or effect to cause. It is very important to know the differences between inductive and deductive reasoning when arguing a cause and effect situation. Inductive reasoning is going from specific instances to broad generalizations. Deductive reasoning moves from general premises to specific causes.
Using Information:Organizing information helps you meet the needs of the content, purpose, and audience. Organizing can also help make a paragraph or document more understandable, as well as overcome some of the noise that interferes with a readers' acceptance or comprehension of information. Organization can also be used to adapt your material to the readers' attitude, by using what you know about your induction and deduction.
Sunday, September 23, 2007
Chapter 9 Summary- Ensuring Usability
Chapter 9 Summary
Ensuring Usability
Ron Schulz, Joseph Haack
Objectives and Outcomes
-characterize usability and understand the crucial role that its principles play in allowing people to accomplish tasks.
-understand factors that characterize usability and usability testing.
-differentiate and use and use text based testing, expert based testing, and user based testing
-identify, plan, and conduct various types of usability tests based on user and task analysis.
-define accessibility and understand the relationship between accessibility and usability.
Characterizing Usability
-usability is the process of putting user concerns and needs first over text features.
-the meaning of the term "text" has been expanded in this chapter to include: a combination of written words and visuals.
Critical principles of usability:
learnability
efficiency
memorability
error recovery
satisfaction
Characterizing Usability Testing
-Definition of: a process that gathers specific information about use from those who are similar to the intended users.
Purposes:
Immediate- ID problems prior to text's release
Long-term- to maintain a historical record of benchmarks and previous results to used for reference during development
-provides info about the way the users think, believe, feel and perform
-Usability testing ensures high-quality texts.
-Limitations: results are only as good as the test itself. They can’t be conducted on everyone in every situation. Keep the following in mind when designing a test: participants, situation, techniques, and procedures.
Types of Usability Testing
Text-based: incorporates checklists, readability tests, and computer programs to assess a text's features.
-Microsoft Word provides 2 types of readability test scores: Flesch Reading Ease (indicates how easy the text is to read), and the Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level (rates text based on US grade level).
Expert-Based: used for assessing technical accuracy, selecting supporting evidence, and identifying the level of detail.
User-Based: gets information based on users. The US government urges the use of such testing because of its importance.
Concurrent Testing- creates realistic scenarios for the user to respond to
Retrospective Testing- includes questionnaires, interviews, focus groups and audience feedback cards.
Conducting Usability Testing
Consider the following issues when planning testing:
1. Goals
2. Criticality
3. Constraints
4. Schedule
5. Involvement
6. Timing
7. Goodness of fit
8. Ease of use
9. Usable Form
10. Updating
User Analysis- investigating the ways users think and how they differ individually. Usability is determined by how well the text works for users who want to accomplish certain tasks.
Task Analysis- selecting representative users who fit the target profile. Be sure to consider the following criteria that the users will face: task steps, resources, constraints, task environment, problems, and frustrations.
Implementing the test plan (steps)
1. Locate Representative Test Participants
2. Develop Strategies and Pilot Test for Inquiry
3. Identify and Prepare a Test Locations and Materials
4. Explain the Test Procedures to Participants
5. Conduct the Tests
Reporting Test Results
First, review data- then determine the critical findings. Then, organize the findings into prioritized categories. Once categories are organized and established, prepare a test report that includes the procedures, participants and findings.
Ensuring Accessibility
Accessibility focuses on providing access to information and services- especially to those who have disabilities (mobility, hearing, cognition, vision).
Principles of Accessibility:
· Equitable use
· flexibility in use
· simple and intuitive use
· perceptible information
· tolerance for error
· low physical effort
· size and space for approach and use
Accessibility and Electronic Communication
Websites need to be aware of and accommodating to their diverse audiences in order to optimize their objectives of sharing information.
Accessibility and Gov’t Regulations
The Americans with Disabilities Act requires that the electronic and information technology of federal agencies, vendors and contractors must be accessible to ALL people with disabilities.
Sunday, September 16, 2007
Chapter Six Summary: Locating and Using Information
Tara Forner and Justin Tufte
Objectives and Outcomes
- Identify and se electronic database resources relevant to your research
- Execute a specific, targeted electronic search using advanced search techniques
- Gather research data using several nonelectronic techniques
- Integrate research successfully into your text
- Avoid plagiarism
Quantitative data- describe measurable elements (quantities) in mathematical or statistical terms
Qualitative data- describe observed or reported information (qualities)
Consider searching electronic sources in the following order:
-Library’s online catalog
-Online reference materials
-General reference database
-Disciple-specific database
-Government databases
-The Internet and World Wide Web
Online Catalog
Online Catalog includes; books, bound periodicals, audiovisual holdings, electronic resources. Each book is in the Dewey decimal system and sorted into different categories and then subdivided with individual numbers. This helps you be able to find the correct volume out of the stacks.
Online Reference Materials
Most of the references and materials used by reference libraries are online. Two of the most used are handbooks and specialized encyclopedias. Handbooks used their information in tables, charts, diagrams, graphs, and glossaries. Specialized encyclopedias are used for an overview because they summarize and discuss facts and theories about your subject.
General Reference Database
After using the first two searches then you can do a topic search for published articles. These articles are from academic journals, periodicals, and newspapers. They generally just provide an overview of the topic.
Discipline-Specific Database
These searches give you the chance to search publications and reports that relate to your initial search. They come in print, CD’s or online format.
Government Documents and Offices
U.S. government is required to publish many of its documents, research findings, and proceedings. There are many Web sites that are updated regularly by the U.S. government, which makes information cheap and easily accessible.
Web Research
You can use general and discipline-specific searches, but some of the most reliable include; www.google.com, www.yahoo.com, www.excite.com, and www.metacrawler.com.
Searching Electronic Resources
More and more print information is being turned into online formats. This may make searching more easier or more harder. It makes you use more advanced search techniques to be more specific on your topic search.
Consider the following critical questions so that you get information that will be more useful:
-What are the key terms? What are synonyms for these terms? What alternative terms are used to refer to the topic?
-What indexing source does the database use?
-How do you want o combine the terms?
Keyword Searches
These are more flexible searches that usually include parts of the word, phrases, or some combination of both. You usually use these in the beginning of your search when you are just trying to filter out not related topics.
Subject Searches
These are predetermined categories that you can search within the database. On some databases you can limit your search. Such as;
-Time frame. Do you want information from the past ten years? Five years? Current year?
-Types of materials. Do you want only books? Articles? Articles in refereed publications? Audiovisual materials? Presentations?
-Language(s). Do you want materials only in English? Also in German? French? Russian? Spanish? Chinese?
-Print Format. Do you want only titles? The full citation? The complete record with the abstract if it’s available? The full text?
Searching Other Sources
Although the internet is a great resource, there are many other resources that can be of great use.
Here are some of those resources:
Internal Records
This is the data that businesses or organizations keep about their transactions. This information may include financial transactions, manufacturing and marketing records, or shipping records.
Corporate Libraries
Organizations such as law firms keep extensive libraries for their employees. These libraries may provide many services that can provide help in finding information for employees.
Personal Observations
Personal observations have long been a great tool for collecting data. This would include experiments done by experts and even your own hands-on experience.
Interviews and Letters of Inquiry
In an interview you need to gather necessary information about the subject, approach the person you want to interview and identify the categories of question you want to ask. There are two broad categories of question:
- Convergent questions: have one correct answer.
- Divergent question: are open ended and are more useful in problem solving.
Surveys and Polls
These are very effective opinion gathering strategies. Surveys can be designed using any of six different types of questions:
- Dual alternatives: yes or no questions.
- Multiple choice: questions: a list of answers with only one that is correct.
- Rank ordering: order items according to preference.
- Likert scales: rate items numerically or verbally.
- Completions: fill in the blank to complete an item.
- Essays or open-ended question: allows full expression of one’s opinion.
Using Sources Ethically
With all of the information on the Web, plagiarizing has become easier and more frequent. One must if their sources are credible and how to incorporate the information from these sources into their projects without plagiarizing.
Assessing Credibility
The ease of posting information on the Web has made it difficult to judge whether information online is credible. You need to know where the information came from and if there are any biases or incorrect information in the material. Here are some key items to pay attention to when judging the credibility of a Web document:
- Authorship: Can you identify the author or webmaster on the site? Is the author identified as a person, a corporation, a university? What do you know about the credential of the author or organization? Does the site have a sponsor that might have vested interest?
- Timeliness: When was the site originally posted? When was the site last updated? How regularly is the site updated? Is the information current or outdated for your needs?
- Purpose: Can you determine from the design and content if the site is intended to inform, persuade, or sell? Can you determine the intended audience? Does the site have advertising banners? Do they affect the content?
- Content: How detailed and well-researched is the content? Does the new information confirm or disconfirm your prior knowledge? Does the author fully cite sources and link to respected sources to support assertions? Can you verify the author’s claims using other resources? Does the content contain spelling and grammatical errors? Can you identify a particular slant or bias to the information?
Avoiding Plagiarism
Plagiarism is when you use a piece of work that is not your own without attribution. Here are some instances of plagiarism:
- Using exact quotations from a document, presentation, Web sites, or visual designs and images without attribution.
- Using someone else’s unique ideas without attribution.
- Using someone else’s unique processes without attribution.
- Using a piece of work that has only been changed slightly without attribution.
Individual and Collaborative Assignments
7 tips when working on an individual or collaborative assignment:
- Learn about your own academic library.
- Learn about a corporate library.
- Recommend resources.
- Identify keywords and subject headings.
- Compare sources in your field.
- Compare internet sources.
- Interview a professional.
- Identify and correct plagiarism.
Tara Forner and Justin Tufte
Objectives and Outcomes
- Identify and se electronic database resources relevant to your research
- Execute a specific, targeted electronic search using advanced search techniques
- Gather research data using several nonelectronic techniques
- Integrate research successfully into your text
- Avoid plagiarism
Quantitative data- describe measurable elements (quantities) in mathematical or statistical terms
Qualitative data- describe observed or reported information (qualities)
Consider searching electronic sources in the following order:
-Library’s online catalog
-Online reference materials
-General reference database
-Disciple-specific database
-Government databases
-The Internet and World Wide Web
Online Catalog
Online Catalog includes; books, bound periodicals, audiovisual holdings, electronic resources. Each book is in the Dewey decimal system and sorted into different categories and then subdivided with individual numbers. This helps you be able to find the correct volume out of the stacks.
Online Reference Materials
Most of the references and materials used by reference libraries are online. Two of the most used are handbooks and specialized encyclopedias. Handbooks used their information in tables, charts, diagrams, graphs, and glossaries. Specialized encyclopedias are used for an overview because they summarize and discuss facts and theories about your subject.
General Reference Database
After using the first two searches then you can do a topic search for published articles. These articles are from academic journals, periodicals, and newspapers. They generally just provide an overview of the topic.
Discipline-Specific Database
These searches give you the chance to search publications and reports that relate to your initial search. They come in print, CD’s or online format.
Government Documents and Offices
U.S. government is required to publish many of its documents, research findings, and proceedings. There are many Web sites that are updated regularly by the U.S. government, which makes information cheap and easily accessible.
Web Research
You can use general and discipline-specific searches, but some of the most reliable include; www.google.com, www.yahoo.com, www.excite.com, and www.metacrawler.com.
Searching Electronic Resources
More and more print information is being turned into online formats. This may make searching more easier or more harder. It makes you use more advanced search techniques to be more specific on your topic search.
Consider the following critical questions so that you get information that will be more useful:
-What are the key terms? What are synonyms for these terms? What alternative terms are used to refer to the topic?
-What indexing source does the database use?
-How do you want o combine the terms?
Keyword Searches
These are more flexible searches that usually include parts of the word, phrases, or some combination of both. You usually use these in the beginning of your search when you are just trying to filter out not related topics.
Subject Searches
These are predetermined categories that you can search within the database. On some databases you can limit your search. Such as;
-Time frame. Do you want information from the past ten years? Five years? Current year?
-Types of materials. Do you want only books? Articles? Articles in refereed publications? Audiovisual materials? Presentations?
-Language(s). Do you want materials only in English? Also in German? French? Russian? Spanish? Chinese?
-Print Format. Do you want only titles? The full citation? The complete record with the abstract if it’s available? The full text?
Searching Other Sources
Although the internet is a great resource, there are many other resources that can be of great use.
Here are some of those resources:
Internal Records
This is the data that businesses or organizations keep about their transactions. This information may include financial transactions, manufacturing and marketing records, or shipping records.
Corporate Libraries
Organizations such as law firms keep extensive libraries for their employees. These libraries may provide many services that can provide help in finding information for employees.
Personal Observations
Personal observations have long been a great tool for collecting data. This would include experiments done by experts and even your own hands-on experience.
Interviews and Letters of Inquiry
In an interview you need to gather necessary information about the subject, approach the person you want to interview and identify the categories of question you want to ask. There are two broad categories of question:
- Convergent questions: have one correct answer.
- Divergent question: are open ended and are more useful in problem solving.
Surveys and Polls
These are very effective opinion gathering strategies. Surveys can be designed using any of six different types of questions:
- Dual alternatives: yes or no questions.
- Multiple choice: questions: a list of answers with only one that is correct.
- Rank ordering: order items according to preference.
- Likert scales: rate items numerically or verbally.
- Completions: fill in the blank to complete an item.
- Essays or open-ended question: allows full expression of one’s opinion.
Using Sources Ethically
With all of the information on the Web, plagiarizing has become easier and more frequent. One must if their sources are credible and how to incorporate the information from these sources into their projects without plagiarizing.
Assessing Credibility
The ease of posting information on the Web has made it difficult to judge whether information online is credible. You need to know where the information came from and if there are any biases or incorrect information in the material. Here are some key items to pay attention to when judging the credibility of a Web document:
- Authorship: Can you identify the author or webmaster on the site? Is the author identified as a person, a corporation, a university? What do you know about the credential of the author or organization? Does the site have a sponsor that might have vested interest?
- Timeliness: When was the site originally posted? When was the site last updated? How regularly is the site updated? Is the information current or outdated for your needs?
- Purpose: Can you determine from the design and content if the site is intended to inform, persuade, or sell? Can you determine the intended audience? Does the site have advertising banners? Do they affect the content?
- Content: How detailed and well-researched is the content? Does the new information confirm or disconfirm your prior knowledge? Does the author fully cite sources and link to respected sources to support assertions? Can you verify the author’s claims using other resources? Does the content contain spelling and grammatical errors? Can you identify a particular slant or bias to the information?
Avoiding Plagiarism
Plagiarism is when you use a piece of work that is not your own without attribution. Here are some instances of plagiarism:
- Using exact quotations from a document, presentation, Web sites, or visual designs and images without attribution.
- Using someone else’s unique ideas without attribution.
- Using someone else’s unique processes without attribution.
- Using a piece of work that has only been changed slightly without attribution.
Individual and Collaborative Assignments
7 tips when working on an individual or collaborative assignment:
- Learn about your own academic library.
- Learn about a corporate library.
- Recommend resources.
- Identify keywords and subject headings.
- Compare sources in your field.
- Compare internet sources.
- Interview a professional.
- Identify and correct plagiarism.
Chapter 7 Summary
by Terry Fraser and Jed Stark
Planning and Drafting
Objectives and Outcomes
- Learn the strategies used by experienced writers as they explore, plan, and draft documents, oral presentations and visuals -
- As part of inventing and exploring, use a problem-solving process with proven strategies: brainstorming, 5 Ws plus H, cause-and-effect analysis, and synectics
- As part of planning, consider types of planning, use project-management tools, make decisions about rhetorical elements (content, purpose, task, audience, constraints, organization, and design), assess the logic.
- As part of drafting, select the appropriate person and verb mood, use plain language, avoid density, and use given-new constructions
Experienced writers typically ask whether their documents, oral presentations and visuals are accessible, comprehensible, and usable. In contrast, inexperienced writers tend to be concerned with whether they have enough content, minimize their planning, and not think much about the audience.
The following are steps professionals typically move through during the creative process:
-Inventing and Exploring
-Planning and Organizing
-Drafting and Designing
-Revising
-Editing
This chapter focuses on what happens in inventing/exploring, planning/organizing and drafting, and suggests a number of strategies to help you become more expert-like in these parts of the process. Revising and editing are the focus of the next chapter.
The writing process used to be described in three linear stages: pre-writing, drafting, and revising. Further research has shown that the steps are actually recursive, that is they can happen more than once, and more than one at a time.
It is a good idea to begin your writing process by asking questions. Questions about the context, the subject, the document, oral presentation, yourself and your role(as a writer, speaker or designer), reader or reviewer.Think about each of those possible questions and brainstorm some answers to them. For example: Why am I, the reader, reading this document? What is my previous knowledge on this topic? What do I need to know? What will influence my interpretation? Asking yourself these questions in advance helps you plan and organize your piece for your target audience. (See Fig. 7.5 p238 for an in depth list of questions)
Inventing and Exploring
Communicators spend a lot of time talking to themselves. Inventing ideas and listening to how they sound. You must run over your ideas, look up background references, make observations, do experiments and basically trouble shoot your entire idea until you believe it is at the best it can be.
Problem Solving Process
Effective problem solving can make your work much easier. individuals and groups in the workplace that want to be at their top production follow a problem-solving process. They initially:
1) Identify the context ( politics, policies, parameters for solutions) and the problem (which may be defined differently by different people)
2) They gather and evaluate information in order to set priorities.
3) They then typically formulate alternative possible solutions that may differ from conventional approaches, being careful to defer judgment about the preferred solution.
4) The individuals in the group then draw on their own knowledge and experiences with similar problems in order to determine the preferred outcome for success.
5) They later asses the alternatives and select on plan of action.
6) After finalizing the plan, they get started on the most appropriate, efficient solution, considering technical, organizational, and interpersonal factors.
7) As the solution is implemented, people need to monitor the individual and group performance against the outcome.
8) Now the group can finally evaluate their performance to determine the success of their problem solving process and the final product
Problem Solving Strategies
This chapter focuses on four different strategies for you to hopefully solve your problems.
- Brainstorming
- 5 Ws + H
- Cause-and-effect
-Synectics
We all should know what brainstorming is, the process of bouncing around a bunch of ideas without making a decision until at least a few ideas have been suggested. The 5Ws plus H is a common formula associated with journalism. Many of us i assume have run into this formula in many of or writing classes.
*Who- who is involved?
*What- What is involved? What should be Changed?
*When- When should it be done? when is the most appropriate or convenient time?
*Where- Where should it be done?
*Why- Why should it be done?
*How- How should it be done?
Another effective strategy that is common in quality control circle is the Cause-and-effect analysis, which focuses on the root cause of a certain problem. for a business causes of specific problems can be seperated into four categories, Machine, Employee, Material, and Method. There is a good chart on page 232 to give you an idea what this method involves.
The last problem solving strategy is Synectics. this is coined from the greek word syn, meaning "to bring together," and ectos, for "diversity." Together it suggests that this word means bringing together a diversified opinions or ideas. This encourages workplace professionals to combine unrelated ideas as a way of working with a certain problem. Doing this helps develop new perspectives and solutions. Using a variety of methods, such as metaphors, analogies, role playing, and simulations, the trouble-shooters first define the problem then they put themselves into it and using one of these methods act out the problem and see what they can do about it.
Planning and Organizing
There are three types of planning that experienced writers use prior to beginning drafting:
1. Schema-driven planning
2. Knowledge-driven planning
3. Constructive planning
Schema-driven planning is when you create a document according to an existing format or template. A schema is your knowledge, your mental image of what is expected for the given situation. If you were to write a memo, you know what it would look like, or a cake recipe, or a business letter. There is a certain format to each that is different from the others. Knowing these formats allows you to write what you need with less work on what it should look like, and what kind of information to include.
Knowledge-driven planning is when you have a great deal of knowledge about the topic your are writing about. For knowledge-driven planning to work, your information must be very well organized and to the point. Much like giving an informational speech on something you have a lot of knowledge about, it is easy to wander and follow tangents. Stay on task.
Constructive planning would be used if you have a very difficult writing task. You must use careful analysis of the purpose, audience, task and other constraints to successfully use constructive planning. It will however help to keep you organized, on task, and creating and meeting deadlines. Often, a combination of two or even all three types of planning are used.
Project Planning
Two types of charts can be used to help with time- and project-management: Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) charts and Gantt charts. PERT charts allow you track activities and show how they depend on each other, while Gantt charts use time lines to track activities. Both tools are easy to use with computer software, and can be used to keep all of the team members up to date with project deadlines and percentage complete.
A very important part of planning revolves around the ethics of the situation. No matter how accurate your information, or impressive your design, or how eloquently you speak, if you are perceived as unethical your audience won't think twice about what you have to say. You must find a balance between your personal beliefs and your public positions on your topic(s).
Assessing the Logic
You must make sure that your document is logical. Problems with logic generally fall into four categories:
1. Using data from authorities
2. Presenting facts without drawing inferences
3. Drawing inferences
4. Establishing causal relationships
Using data from authorities usually gets good response from audience members, but only if that authority is well grounded in the topic. Make sure you research the authorities you use, and try to use non-partial ones.
Having facts are great but if you don't show how they logically connect with your topic, they will only serve to confuse the audience.
During your planning, you obtain data and then draw inferences based on that data. Making hasty generalizations could lead to inaccurate inferences. Make sure there are multiple sources giving you the same conclusion, or you may have just happened to pick the only one with that conclusion when in fact the majority go the other way.
Lastly, when using cause and effect, be sure that the effect has sufficient cause. Some causes may be a sufficient cause(only one cause for the effect) or they may also be a contributing cause(cannot stand by itself, but helps other causes to bring about the effect).
Drafting
Drafting is writing of the text and prepping the visuals. There are many different approaches to this stage of the process, each different for writers, or speakers, and designers.
- You may want to create small pieces of the draft during the planning stage, write small notes of key points you don't want to forget and when your planning seems to be done you take these notes, develop them, and fill in the remaining spaces.
- You may sit down and compose or design from beginning to end without interruption.
- You may want to draw up an outline and notes or a rough sketch, using this a guide for when you write or draw, going back to them whenever you find a snag.
- you may generate an online outline or sketch as the framework of your document and then stick to this outline.
- You may want to take your time, work slowly as you ponder and polish your work as you go along and figure it out as you go.
- Or you may take the opposite approach and work very rapidly letting the ideas tumble out onto each other.
The best approach is to try several of these strategies in order to see which one works best for you. Also you need to look at drafting as a continual process, something that you are always doing as you go through your work, you draft as you think of new ideas, it is seldom a "do it once" part of the process.
Selecting Person
Choosing among first, second, or third person relies on the purpose and audience of your presentation or document. First person (I, We) is appropriate when you are narrating events in a sequence where you play a significant role. Second person (You) is normally reserved for instructions where readers are being directed to complete particular actions. Third person (He, She, One, It, They) is the most common, enabling you to emphasize the sequence of action rather than yourself or the readers.
Verb Mood
mood refers to the characteristics of various verbs which show a presenters attitude towards their statement. During your drafting, you should select verbs that convey the mood that is appropriate to the situation
- Indicative mood states facts or opinions or asks questions.
fact nurses us a rectal thermometer to take a baby's temperature
Opinion Child-care providers prefer a thermometer strip rather than a rectal thermometer for taking a baby's temperature.
question Why should child-care providers use a thermometer strip to take a baby's temperature?
-Imperative mood expresses commands or gives a direction.
command (you) Use a rectal thermometer to take a baby's temperature.
direction (you) Get a thermometer from the drawer labeled "Thermometers" in utility room II
- Subjective mood expresses recommendations, wishes, conjectures, indirect requests, and statements of conditions contrary to fact.
recommendation When children are hospitalized, we recommend that parents be wit them. (not are)
Wish I wish the clinic were able to provide more well-baby classes. (not was)
Conjecture If the budget were not cut, we would have electronic thermometers. (not was)
indirect request if the rectal thermometer were to break, a baby could be seriously injured. (not was)
condition The parent asked if the examination were almost over. (not was)
contrary to fact
Process explanations deal with observable, verifiable information which is why is written in indicative mood. however you also need to be able to recognize and use imperative mood and subjective mood in appropriate contexts.
Selecting Active or Passive Voice
Your selection of either active or passive voice depends on your subject, the purpose and focus, as well as your audience. Active voice focuses on the doer of the action and de-emphasizes the receiver, which is appropriate in most situations. Active voice is used more commonly because it is much more interesting to read, more direct, pretty much you would use in every situation unless you have a specific reason not to. Passive voice is usually used when the receiver is more important than the agent. To better understand this concept use the figure on page 248.
Using Plain Language
Plain language makes understanding even the most technical document much easier. You should strive to use plain language whenever possible. Here are some characteristics of plain language:
-Common, everyday words, except for necessary technical terms.
-"You" and other pronouns
-The active voice
-Short sentences
(as described by the presidential order stating all government documents must be in plain language)
Using plain language will increase the comprehensibility and usability of your documents, oral presentations, and visuals.
Avoiding Density
Sometimes you may have one paragraph on a single topic, but there are so many ideas pack into it that it is difficult to see the connection between them. This is an example of a 'dense' paragraph. Here are some suggestions for avoiding density:
-Separate information into several sentences rather than a few very long sentences.
-Develop important points in separate paragraphs.
-Add examples and explanations to illustrate points.
-Use direct diction.
-Add transitions within paragraphs and between paragraphs and sections of a document.
Concerning visual aids:
-Use headings and subheadings to identify key sections.
-Illustrate objects and concepts to aid understanding.
-Use selected visual devices to highlight key ideas: lists, bullets, tables, underlining, italics, boldface.
Using Given-New Analysis
Given-new constructions are when new information is connected to what the audience already knows, either from background knowledge or from immediately preceding text. It is very important to make sure your ideas logically follow one another. It is easy to assume your readers(listeners) know more than they do, so you neglect to include background or connecting information that the readers(listeners) need. Refer to page 253 for some nice examples of given-new analysis.
Documents written with this analysis are typically easier to understand and remember.
Sunday, September 9, 2007
Chapter 5 Summary
Jake Droessler and Josh Wentzel
Objectives and Outcomes:
1. To understand that writing in the workplace will involve collaboration.
2. Recognize situations that make collaboration appropriate, such as subject, process, product, and benefits. Also recognize situations that could cause conflict.
3. Develop skills to participate in different types of collaboration: coauthoring, working with colleagues, and team projects.
4. Learn to develop skills that are typical of a successful collaboration. Such as listening, asking questions, sharing ideas and thoughts, using technology effectively, and reflect.
5. Avoid interpersonal conflicts. Negotiate potential procedural conflicts, and encourage substantive conflicts.
The four main reasons that collaboration takes place:
· Subject of the project
· Process used in the project
· Product that collaborators create
· Benefits of collaboration
Subject of Project
When working on some projects, there needs to be collaboration to make the project a success. The subject matter of the project can require more than just one person researching and reporting. For example, the building of a bridge would require tons of collaboration. The engineer, drafter, contractor, and right down to the laborers themselves would all have to collaborate to make that project a success.
Process Used in the Project
The process that is used in a project will often dictate how much collaboration is needed. More often than not a project will require a fair amount of collaboration to complete it. A lot of tasks require feedback from more than just one person that started the project. Working together in a group will help eliminate a one sided view and will make the project go faster and better.
Product That Collaborators Create
The end product is the collaborators goal and they want it to be perfect. A web site for example is something that needs to be appealing to its intended audience but also should be accurate with its information. For example, a web site that wants to explain some normal automobile maintenance would want to have instructions from a certified auto mechanic rather than from Mr. Johnson down the street. It would make the website sound more professional.
Benefits of Collaboration
Some of the benefits of collaboration are the ease of communication, you can use a Web conference instead of trying to get everyone together at one specified time in one place. Also, collaboration has personal and orginizational benefits. Many people like being part of a team and succeeding as a group. Less burden on only one person, the workload is spread out among many individuals.
Disadvantages of Collaboration
· Takes more time than individual work.
· Managers want to much control.
· Unwilling to share credit.
· Conflicts can ruin a group if not worked out.
· Too much criticism.
· People have different ways of approaching issues.
· Responsibility, either too much or too little.
· Technology may not be availible.
· Ethics may be questioned in some instances.
Types of Collaboration:
Coauthoring
Many people have a wrong understanding of collaboration, they believe that both authors contribute equivalent parts. Really all the authors submit ideas, but they are willing to compromise with the others. Each collaborator analyzes their ideas strengths and weaknesses to achieve the best product.
Consulting with Colleagues
Consulting can provide us with constructive criticism to help us assure quality in our work. People should be willing to consult as well as provide consultation to their co-workers.
Contributing to Team Projects
Contribution does not necessarily have to be equal, but all members of the team should voice opinions on what each persons responsibilities and roles are within the group.
Being a Good Collaborator:
Ackerson gives three guidelines to follow:
1. Treat people like you'd like to be treated.
2. Identify strengths and weaknesses of team members and use them accordingly.
3. Insist on excellence.
Self-Assess
People need to look at their work in a way free from bias, personality, and prejudices.
Be Engaged and Cooperative
· Always come prepared.
· Be able to articulate the purpose of your collaborative work.
· Be articulate in expressing your views.
· Be cooperative and supportive.
· Be direct in stating your own opinions, and respect the ideas of others.
Listen
Active listeners are attentive, involved, interested. They pay attention to what their collaborators say and don't say, also the manner of speaking and tone of voice. By being an active listener you will learn more, and accomplish more as a team.
Conform to Conversation Conventions
All collaboration requires some type of conversation. Here are some tips to make conversations easier:
All conversations
· Select an appropriate location with minimal background distractions.
· Look, sound, and act interested.
· State your points clearly.
· Provide explanations and examples as needed.
· Share the turn taking
· Respond to the other person's ideas.
Face-to-face conversations
· Make direct eye contact.
· Respect personal space.
Telephone conversations
· Don't eat, drink, or chew gum while on the phone.
· Don't put people on hold for more than a few seconds.
Electronic conversations
· Keep in mind that all electronic messages can be forwarded, printed, or permanently stored by any recipient, so be sensible, even cautious, about what you send electronically.
· Copy only enough of the message you're responding to in order to provide a context or a reminder; do not copy the entire message unless you need a legal record.
Ask Questions
By asking questions you can determine how much you already know, and what you need to learn.
· Ask open-ended questions that require comments or discussions rather than questions that ask for yes or no responses.
· Ask questions that focus attention on a range of rhetorical elements important to the project: content, context, purpose, key points, audience, conventions of organization and support, and conventions of document design.
Share
Asking questions is a good way to get information from colleagues, but you also need to give them detailed information to help assist them. Establishing a schedule is the most effective way to get information exchanged.
Use Technology Effectively
Groupware
Groupware is software designed to facilitate group interaction, usually changes the way collaborators plan, share documents, give and receive feedback, and make decisions.
Two important factors of groupware are:
1. Time
2. Location
Awareness
Team members need to be aware of the Interaction, Workspace, and Information they are using and sharing with other members. This can help avoid miscommunication and misunderstandings.
The three areas for team awareness are:
1. Interaction.
2. Workspace.
3. Information
Keeping in mind the who, what, when, where, why, and how of things.
Privacy
Respect group members privacy in sending and sharing information. You should also be cautious in using files and information from other group members.
Reflect
Look back over all the information you have received and re-assess its value, decide whether to keep information or get rid of it. This will help you maintain organization and clarity.
Negotiating Conflicts:
As you become more involved in collaborations, you will need to develop skills to manage problems and negotiate three different types of conflicts.
Affective Conflicts
Are due to personal attitudes and biases, as well as personality and values. To succeed in a project you need to develop interpersonal relationships. You need to respect others in your group and get along with them. If you do not make an attempt to do this these conflicts will set-back progress of the project and lead to other problems.
Procedural Conflicts
Groups need to outline how they will operate, many experienced collaborators use these critical factors to help run smoothly:
1. Meeting details
· Settle details of meetings: time, place, duration.
· Agree on what preparation should be done for meetings.
· Discuss the collaborative approach the group will use.
2. Team roles and responsibilities
· Identify the responsibilities each individual will assume.
· Determine how to monitor the group's progress.
· Decide on order of authorship based on some mutually acceptable criteria.
3. Productive management of conflict
· Agree on ways to minimize affective and procedural conflict.
· Agree on ways to encourage substantive conflict.
· Decide how to negotiate among alternatives and resolve disagreements.
By taking care of these three critical factors first you can reduce the chances of having set-backs due to procedural conflict down the road.
Substantive Conflicts
Includes decisions about the projects content, purpose, audience, conventions of orginization and support, and conventions of design. Two things should be agreed on before the groups starts collaboration. Agree on the purpose of the collaboration and agree on project objectives and outcomes.
A number of things can be done in order to make the collaboration a success.
1. Voice explicit disagreements- dont hold ideas inside
2. Consider alternatives to plan.
3. Ask provocitive questions. Stay on topic with questions.
4. Take a productive and critical perspective. Give only constructive criticism.
5. Seperate ideas and personality. Don't mistake objection of idea for attack on you as a person.
Cultural differences can lead to conflicts in collaboration because of how different people are used to approacing things different ways. Like in Chapter 2 conflicts can be caused by someone misinterpretaion of something that another collaborator says or does.
When working in a group one should expect some conflicts due to cultural differences. How the group overcomes the conflict is the big picture. Understanding other cultures can cut those conflicts down but will not eliminate them. People need to be calm and try to realize that not everyone has to approach things the same way they, themselves do.
Friday, September 7, 2007
Chapter 4 Summary
By Tom Wilmes and Erin Collopy
Identifying Purposes
There are two purposes professionals have when preparing a technical document:
- Concisely and accurately convey verifiable information
- Persuade audiences to attend to the information.
Identifying Audiences
You must identify your audience’s needs and specific issues before you analyze it, this is the intended audience.
There are four types of audiences:
Initial Audience: the person to whom you submit a document but not necessarily the decision maker.
Primary Audience: the person for whom your document is intended and the one who will use the information.
Secondary Audience: receive and read the document. They have the most interest because they are affected by the information in it.
External Audience: people outside the immediate organization but are affected by the information or decisions based on it.
Individual Readers may fit into more than one category. For example; a company VP is an expert in business but a student in an Aviation course.
Analyzing Audiences
Strategies for analyzing audiences:
- Context in which a document is interpreted
- Purpose and motivation of the audiences
- Prior knowledge of the audiences including, education and professional experiences
- Organizational role of the audiences
Talking with people in the areas of Design and Development, Marketing, Sales, and Customer Service can help you understand what to put into the document.
Context
It is vital to consider the physical and political context and working conditions in which the audience will interpret and use documents, presentations, and visuals. A repair manual used by technicians needs to have a sturdy cover and pages that lie flat as well as visuals and headings that can be easily scanned. A busy executive reading that same manual needs to have it formatted so it has clear , abstract headings, brief explanations and justifications, and conclusions and recommendations.
Purpose and Motivation
Knowing the audience’s purpose and motivation helps you adjust receptivity and decrease resistance.
Receptive audiences: You can present recommendations initially and then support them in subsequent sections
Resistant Audiences: You can present the problem, discuss the alternatives, and then lead to the most appropriate and feasible solution, hoping audiences are persuaded by your interpretation.
Prior Knowledge
If you can estimate audiences prior knowledge, you will be able to determine the appropriate vocabulary and content. Both education and workplace experience influence prior knowledge. The level, type, and duration of a persons education strongly influence prior knowledge, affecting a persons comprehension of concepts and their application.
Vocational-technical Training focuses on providing a practical or applied knowledge.
Professional or academic training focuses on providing a theoretical understanding as well as a practical experience
Reading level
Writing for an audience’s level is important; if audiences cannot understand and act on the written information, it is useless. Knowing an audience’s reading ability helps you adjust content and approach. Writers should not automatically assume, however that the smarter the audiences, the more difficult the material should be. A very intelligent person may not have a high reading level; another person may be able to read complex material in one specialized area, but not in another.
Factors that affect the ease or difficulty of a text:
- Content: Is the content concrete? Supported with explanations? Need prior knowledge?
- Context: Does it explain the context? Is it familiar to the audiences?
- Purpose: Purpose clearly stated? Will the audience agree with the purpose?
- Audience: Does the document target the right audience and reading level?
- Organization: Is it logically organized? Is the information coherent?
- Visuals: Are visuals mixed in? Are they appropriate and appealing?
- Design: Is it appropriately chunked and labeled? Style and format appropriate?
- Usability: Can the audience use the information?
- Language conventions: Does it conform to grammatical and mechanical conventions?
Two types of organization:
- Hierarchical organization: people work best when directed, bosses at top, managers in middle, workers at bottom.
- Nonhierarchical organization: everyone contributes equally to the productivity of the organization.
Adjusting to Audiences:
- Address audiences with different levels of expertise by adjusting the complexity of the material.
- Address audiences with different organizational roles by shifting focus of the discussion and choice of details.
- Address audiences by designing web sites that enable audiences to construct unique sequences of information to meet their own needs and interests.
When choosing which audience to write for you need to identify and write for the primary audience and identify and consider the secondary audiences. Use design elements to make information accessible in both paper and electronic messages.
Tuesday, September 4, 2007
Chapter 3 Summary
Chapter 3 Reading Technical Information
By: Elijah Wreh and Anil Shrestha
Objectives and Outcomes
1. Understand that workplace professionals and presentations read comments, listen to conversations and presentations, and view visuals for a variety of purposes: assessing and making decisions, background, learning to do a task, and actually doiung a task.
2. Recognize that reading and writing are synergistically linked activities-each affects the other.
3. Use the strategies of experienced communicators:
-Skim, scan, and predict
-Identify structure/hierachy: document features, visual displays, and organization.
-Determine the main points.
-Draw inferences:tacit assumptions, implications, ethics, and impact of implications.
-Generate questions and examples.
-Monitor and adapt strategies before, during, and after reading.
Identifying Purposes
There are variety of purposes you read for in a professional workplace. These purposes can be categorized into four main categories.
1. Reading to assess
2. Reading to learn
3. Reading to learn to do
4. Reading to do
1. Reading to assess- This reading enables you to decide whether the document will be useful for you or someone else.
2. Reading to learn- This reading allows you to learn information for problem solving , decision making, and background knowledge
3. Reading to learn to do- This reading enables you to learn how to complete tasks.
4. Reading to do- This reading helps you to complete tasks.
Reading-Writing Relationships
Reading and writing played a meaningful role in our day to day activities. What ever the situation may be, one have to be a effective reader and writer in order to communicate effectively with others from different Languages. Whenever, one is communicating to a audience that is comprises of people from different languages and cultural backgrounds, one have to be precise and put out the message thoroughly and accurately. There are tons of people out there especially in our society today, who find it very difficult and hard to understand English, so whenver one communicate, whether it is done by the print and electronic media or whatever means of communications, it should be done in the simplest format. For instance, a gentleman from Russia told me about his reading ordeal, that is he read an article from CNN and he found it very difficult understanding the nitty-gritty about the article.
How will you considered this individual? Effective or non-effective reader and writer!
Strategies for effective Reading
There are plenty of strategies to make one an effective reader and writer. However, the author of this book listed three things, namely: skim, scan and predict. I considered it as SSP in my own word.
Skim-Whenever one read a document, they need to skim through it as soon as possible in order to understand the content and mainpoint of the document. The secret begin this, is to get a quick understanding of the document and what is it all about.
Scan-For this part, before one read a document, one should scan through the document thoroughly, by running their eyes from the top of the page to the bottom of the page, paying keen attention to any phrase or word that is unusual and not understandable.
Predict-In the process of skimming and scanning through the document, begin to ask yourself reasonable questions and formulate hypothesis in your mind. This will help you get an insight about the document when you are done reading.
Identify Structure and Hierarchy
Technical documents have certain structure and hierarchy. They have features such as heading, visual cues, and previews.
Document features: Standard features of a document can help readers know what to anticipate.
Visual cues: Visual cues help readers distinguish the hierarchy of ideas in a document. Readers have an easier time understanding and using documents that have the following features.
1. Information is chunked
- Related information is chunked so that relationships are clear
- Heading and subheadings signal and separate topics
- Spacing between lines and sections separate related information
2. Information is arranged so that sequence is clear
- numbers or letters indicate the sequence
3. Information is emphasized so that important elements are signaled
- type size can indicate the hierarhy
- placement on a page or screen can indicate hierarchy
- using different fonts,type style variations, and icons
Previews and Reviews: previewing and reviewing enables the reader to identify then reinforce the structure or organization of a document.
Determine the main Points
It will sound pretty much awkward, if one read a document or an article from a newspapers and don't understand the main points. Readers need to pay key attentions to what, who, where and how whenever they read a document or an article. This will aid them in understanding the main points of a document.
Draw Inferences
Most people find it difficult and hard whenver they read a document, article, commentary, news stories or what ever the documents may be. But theoretically speaking, it is advisable and appropraite for one to draw inferences and take down notes, make connections and draw conclusions while reading. This will assist them to be an effective and productive readers in their career.
Generate Questions and Examples
Asking questions help understand a document. Sometimes readers benefit from using traditonal taxonomy ( a formal method of classification). One widely used taxonomy uses six levels of questions.
- Knowledge questions emphasize the recall of specifics.
- Comprehension questions require responses that incorporate knowledge as well as understanding.
- Application questions require specific applications of principles or theories.
- Analysis questions emphasize the separation of objects, mechanisms, systems,organisms,operations,clearly establishing the relationship between these parts.
- Synthesis questions expect the reader to focus on organizing or structuring the parts to form a unique whole. The response may either serve as an over all plan or explain a particular phenomenon.
- Evaluation questions require readers to judge something’s qualitative and quantitative value.
Monitor and Adapt Reading Strategies
Effective readers are aware of what they’re doing when they move through a document. They’re actively engaged in their reading; they’re aware of their comprehension of concepts and terms. when their comprehension or speed decreases , they adjust their strategies to meet the needs of the situation.
Individual and Collaborative Assignments--Footnotes
1. Identify the purpose, methodology, result(s), and conclusion.
2. Identify the purpose, methodology, result(s), and conclusion.
3. Identify the main points.
4. Determine kinds of reading.
5. Compare differences in reading purposes.
6. Interrogate a document.
POSTED BY ELIJAH WREH AT 10:06 AM
By: Elijah Wreh and Anil Shrestha
Objectives and Outcomes
1. Understand that workplace professionals and presentations read comments, listen to conversations and presentations, and view visuals for a variety of purposes: assessing and making decisions, background, learning to do a task, and actually doiung a task.
2. Recognize that reading and writing are synergistically linked activities-each affects the other.
3. Use the strategies of experienced communicators:
-Skim, scan, and predict
-Identify structure/hierachy: document features, visual displays, and organization.
-Determine the main points.
-Draw inferences:tacit assumptions, implications, ethics, and impact of implications.
-Generate questions and examples.
-Monitor and adapt strategies before, during, and after reading.
Identifying Purposes
There are variety of purposes you read for in a professional workplace. These purposes can be categorized into four main categories.
1. Reading to assess
2. Reading to learn
3. Reading to learn to do
4. Reading to do
1. Reading to assess- This reading enables you to decide whether the document will be useful for you or someone else.
2. Reading to learn- This reading allows you to learn information for problem solving , decision making, and background knowledge
3. Reading to learn to do- This reading enables you to learn how to complete tasks.
4. Reading to do- This reading helps you to complete tasks.
Reading-Writing Relationships
Reading and writing played a meaningful role in our day to day activities. What ever the situation may be, one have to be a effective reader and writer in order to communicate effectively with others from different Languages. Whenever, one is communicating to a audience that is comprises of people from different languages and cultural backgrounds, one have to be precise and put out the message thoroughly and accurately. There are tons of people out there especially in our society today, who find it very difficult and hard to understand English, so whenver one communicate, whether it is done by the print and electronic media or whatever means of communications, it should be done in the simplest format. For instance, a gentleman from Russia told me about his reading ordeal, that is he read an article from CNN and he found it very difficult understanding the nitty-gritty about the article.
How will you considered this individual? Effective or non-effective reader and writer!
Strategies for effective Reading
There are plenty of strategies to make one an effective reader and writer. However, the author of this book listed three things, namely: skim, scan and predict. I considered it as SSP in my own word.
Skim-Whenever one read a document, they need to skim through it as soon as possible in order to understand the content and mainpoint of the document. The secret begin this, is to get a quick understanding of the document and what is it all about.
Scan-For this part, before one read a document, one should scan through the document thoroughly, by running their eyes from the top of the page to the bottom of the page, paying keen attention to any phrase or word that is unusual and not understandable.
Predict-In the process of skimming and scanning through the document, begin to ask yourself reasonable questions and formulate hypothesis in your mind. This will help you get an insight about the document when you are done reading.
Identify Structure and Hierarchy
Technical documents have certain structure and hierarchy. They have features such as heading, visual cues, and previews.
Document features: Standard features of a document can help readers know what to anticipate.
Visual cues: Visual cues help readers distinguish the hierarchy of ideas in a document. Readers have an easier time understanding and using documents that have the following features.
1. Information is chunked
- Related information is chunked so that relationships are clear
- Heading and subheadings signal and separate topics
- Spacing between lines and sections separate related information
2. Information is arranged so that sequence is clear
- numbers or letters indicate the sequence
3. Information is emphasized so that important elements are signaled
- type size can indicate the hierarhy
- placement on a page or screen can indicate hierarchy
- using different fonts,type style variations, and icons
Previews and Reviews: previewing and reviewing enables the reader to identify then reinforce the structure or organization of a document.
Determine the main Points
It will sound pretty much awkward, if one read a document or an article from a newspapers and don't understand the main points. Readers need to pay key attentions to what, who, where and how whenever they read a document or an article. This will aid them in understanding the main points of a document.
Draw Inferences
Most people find it difficult and hard whenver they read a document, article, commentary, news stories or what ever the documents may be. But theoretically speaking, it is advisable and appropraite for one to draw inferences and take down notes, make connections and draw conclusions while reading. This will assist them to be an effective and productive readers in their career.
Generate Questions and Examples
Asking questions help understand a document. Sometimes readers benefit from using traditonal taxonomy ( a formal method of classification). One widely used taxonomy uses six levels of questions.
- Knowledge questions emphasize the recall of specifics.
- Comprehension questions require responses that incorporate knowledge as well as understanding.
- Application questions require specific applications of principles or theories.
- Analysis questions emphasize the separation of objects, mechanisms, systems,organisms,operations,clearly establishing the relationship between these parts.
- Synthesis questions expect the reader to focus on organizing or structuring the parts to form a unique whole. The response may either serve as an over all plan or explain a particular phenomenon.
- Evaluation questions require readers to judge something’s qualitative and quantitative value.
Monitor and Adapt Reading Strategies
Effective readers are aware of what they’re doing when they move through a document. They’re actively engaged in their reading; they’re aware of their comprehension of concepts and terms. when their comprehension or speed decreases , they adjust their strategies to meet the needs of the situation.
Individual and Collaborative Assignments--Footnotes
1. Identify the purpose, methodology, result(s), and conclusion.
2. Identify the purpose, methodology, result(s), and conclusion.
3. Identify the main points.
4. Determine kinds of reading.
5. Compare differences in reading purposes.
6. Interrogate a document.
POSTED BY ELIJAH WREH AT 10:06 AM
Sunday, September 2, 2007
Chapter 2 Summary
Chapter 2 Understanding Culture and the Workplace
By: Michael Adams and Luke Ylvisaker
By: Michael Adams and Luke Ylvisaker
Objectives And Outcomes
1. Define culture and recognize the critical role that it plays in the workplace.
2. Understand factors that contribute to various cultures.
3. Analyze and understand the ways in which culture affects workplace communication.
4. Work more productively and respectfully with colleagues from various cultures.
Noticing Culture in the Workplace
Culture plays a big part in our lives at the workplace. By working for a company in America we are opened up to many cultural differences mainly because we are a country that is made up of many different cultures. Now to be an effective member of a company we need to be able to adapt to different cultures. The smoother we can adapt the more efficient we can be in the workplace. And you may think that culture is just a difference in race or nationality but, culture also includes differences in religion and disabilities too.
What's Normal?
The ability to notice and understand a culture sometimes depends on if you can recognize it. Parts of someones culture can be easily visible to us while our own culture can be invisible because we see it as "normal". For example like when we greet someone in the Midwest a lot of us like to use a handshake, we see that as "normal" but it's actually a cultural difference compared to someone from Japan who likes to bow when they are greeting someone. The only way to become culturally aware is to become aware of our own culture first and look at what we think is "normal" through someone else's eyes.
Cultural Blindness
So this whole talk about what we think is "normal" has another effect on us. It can make working at a multi-cultural company very hard. For instance lets say you have a client from Israel that wants to have a teleconference with you. You would probably feel indignant if the client insisted that you have to do it this Sunday. To us we "normally" don't work on Sunday because we consider Sunday and not a part of our regular work days. In Israel in a different culture it is considered a normal work day. This is a time where being culturally aware plays a big role in making sure that the teleconference goes smoothly and being aware will make your work life go easier at other times too. Defining Culture
What is culture? The general definition is that culture is a group of learned beliefs/values that influences our day to day actions. These actions help to make our culture include the tools we use in life, the way we act in different situations, and the way we communicate.
Globalization and Localization
Why should we worry about cultures then? As said before culture plays a big role in how a person will conduct themselves in the workplace and how efficient someone can be. In a global corporation attention has to be made to make your advertisement/product global "friendly". If you try to put an add up with a girl in a bikini front and center it will probably work in the US and Europe. That same ad put up in the Middle East may cause a a very big problem. All because of the culture differences that you weren't aware of between the US and the Middle East. Where localization comes in is a way you would adapt your product for one specific area. For instance that ad you put up in the US and the Middle East,you may be able to "localize" the ad by removing the picture of the girl and replacing it with your company logo. Then you have a global ad that is localized for specific areas.
Cultural Values
So why should we value our cultural awareness? The ability to use your cultural awareness while writing a technical document will be greatly helpful when you write one. If you were writing instructions on how to put a staples box together and you wrote all of the instructions in English, the instructions will probably be messed up when you try to translate them to Spanish. The ability to value other people's culture will make your product receive a better response from the users, increase the efficiency of your meetings, and hopefully show other people in your business that they need to be more culturally aware to bring up their effectiveness in the business.
Analyzing Culture
National cultures
1. Sometimes understanding differences doesn’t eliminate a cultural gap
Languages
1. English is spoken on 5 continents by people who make up 49 percent of the worlds population.
2. Since language is a political hot button, demanding the use of a particular language in the work place can alienate colleagues.
Proxemics
1. The study of the physical distance between people
2. Generally people from North America expect lager intimate and personal space than people from many other countries
Time
1. Different cultures treat time in two different was Monochronic Polychronic
2. Monochronic People
a. Tend to do one thing at a time
b. Take time commitment seriously
c. Concentrate on the specific job
3. Polychronic
a. Tend to do many things at ounce
b. Respond to interruptions
c. Consider time commitments as desirable not absolute
4. Organizational cultures is the shared beliefs and behaviors of people in an organization compromise. One way to describe it would be contrasting practices that characterize activities in the organization
Individuals and their culture
1. Professionals all have different factors that influence the ways in which they participate in,contribute to and react to other cultures
Increase Cultural Awareness
1.There are many ways to make a cross-cultural experience more successful here are a few
a. Be a keen observer
b. Listen carefully to your employees
c. Be patient and flexible
d. Make every effort to meet and engage people of other cultures
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