Chapter 17 Summary

Chapter 17 Summary

Engaging in Oral Communication

Objectives and Outcomes:

Communicate ideas and plans effectively in front of an audience

Decide and select what information needs to go into your presentation

Involve your audience either by asking questions or using notes to keep track of whats going on

Use visual aids that are appropriate for your topic

Create a professional image based on appearance and demeanor; speak loudly enough so the whole audience can hear and understand

Be a good, active listener

Types of Presentations
There are three basic types of presentations, Informal, Formal, and Class presentations.

Informal presentations are usually at work and the audience is either your professional peers or your immediate subordinates or supervisors. Topics of informal presentations usually involve work related issues. For example the book gives the example of the progress you've made designing a curcuit board for a customer. Not much background info is needed because audience is farmiliar with topic and speaker.

Formal presentations take more preparation because the audience is not farmiliar with the speaker and topic so background on yourself and topic is probably needed. A formal presentation could be a couple of experts explaining to possibe customers of a company the benefits of their new product.

Class presentations give students an opportunity to expand their public speaking skills. The other class members can be asked to act as a particular audience so the speaker can get the feel of the real thing.
Audiences

Four Types
Professional peers: Understand field jargon and background information. Presentation should be organized and well detailed. Typically ask more difficult questions at the end.

Nonexpert Professionals: Do not usually understand jargon. Want technical info but not so many technical little details. Listen to recommendations and conclusion.

International Audiences: Appreciate your awareness and respect for their culture. May not understand visual aids and hand signals the way that you intend. Simple and well defined sequence will help tremendously.

General Audiences: Multiple agendas but come together for a common purpose. Like to see clear statement of purpose, defined terms, useful analogies, interesting examples, effective visuals, and clear transitions. Like to be involved.

Involve Listeners
The audience at a presentation might lose interest if not being involved in some way. Ways to involve audience include creating an audience centered atmosphere, encourage active audience involvment, make what you say easy to listen to and remember, and change the pace and structure of your presentation.

Types of Visuals
Chalkboards or white board
Flip Charts
Posters, charts, tables, diagrams, maps, or photos
Slides
Powerpoint
Transparencies
Movies
Physical Models
Demonstrations

Professional Appearance

Things to remember for professional appearance include:
Wear appropriate clothing
Handle notes comfortably
Make eye contact with audience
Handle mistakes smoothly
Relax your hands
Relax your feet
Move naturally
Use the podium comfortably (if available)

Chapter 21

Chapter 21 Team 13
Preparing Instructions and Manuals
Andy Isder & Khushboo Shakya

In this chapter, the term "instructions" refers to all kinds of instructional texts including instructional sheets, electronic help systems, print manuals, training scripts, and tutorials.

Objectives and outcomes
-Ensuring Instructions are useable by combating audience misunderstanding, using principles of adult learning, and confronting aliteracy
-Analyze task, audience, and genre
-Effectively use content elements of instructions
-Provide necessary warnings and cautions

Getting People's Attention

Instructions and manuals have an immediate prupose; to enable users to complete tasks. Three critical concerns:Lack of audience understanding, Adult Learning, and aliteracy can influence whether instructions are actually usuable.

-Begin each instruction with general information to help organize and contextualize it, such as "this instruction is in two parts".
-Simplify the language

Principles of Adult Learning

Adults like to be self directed.Instructions can provide tools for users to self-assess their prior knnowledge and experience and then move to any appropriate place in the instructions.

Adults want a reason for doing or learning something. Instructions can provide reasons for using them as a whole as well as reasons for using subsections.

Adults have prior knowledge and experiences that help them complete tasks. Instructions can use metaphors, analogies, and examples that draw on prior knowledge and experiences.

Adults have goals. Instructions can help users decide how the information fits with their goals.

Adults focus on what is practical and useful. Instructions focus on practical informantion-what, why, and how. They can also identify benefits.

Adults are internally motivated by factors such as relationships and intellectual interests. Instructions can provide users with options-how to approach a task, how to use the information, how to manage problems. Instructions can also address users in a way that encourages them to continue because they'll recieve help.

Addressing Aliteracy

Aliterate can read, but they simply choose not to. They don't want to, don't like to, don't want to take the time to, or don't think they need to. Here are some characteristics of aliteracy.

Scanning text as a regular practive rather than reading tex, whether print or electronic.
Depending on visuals rather than words for information.
Depending on icons, symbols, and logos rather than words for information.
Imbuing color, shape, position, and size with meaning to avoid written language.
Substituting various kinds of electronic communication (for example, Web sites, TV,radio, CD's, audio tapes, movies, videos, DVD's) for printed texts whenever possible.

Considering Task, Audience, and Genre

Analyzing task, audience, and genre is critical as you plan and design instructions. Skipping these analysis reduces the accessibility, comprehensibility, and usability of your instructions.

Analyzing the Task has four catagories
-Actions/behavior of personnel
-Assembly of objects or mechanisms
-Operation of equiptment
-Implementation of a process

Adapting Task to Audience
When chunking and labeling are ignored in instructions, users have difficulty differentiating the background information from the task to be completed and may not be sure what they're actually supposed to do.

Considering Instructions for International Audiences
As the global economy makes products available to more people around the works, instructions need to be acessible to a broad range of users who come from very different cultures and have varying egrees of literacy. Two approaces can adaps instructions to international audiences.
-Provide instructions translated into multiple languages
-Use visuals that are likely to be understood in many cultures
Expect the visuals to carry much of the meaning. The conventions in the illustrations make the steps in the process easy to understand with international icons, numbered steps, human involvement, and close-ups.
-Provide an easy-to-use table of contents or common navigation structure as well as introductory visual maps that help users understand how to use the instructions.
-Be consistent in the way that words, links, and visuals are used.
-If words or visuals work equally well to convey information, choose the visuals. Whenever possible, illistrate text with visuals.

Visual elements:
Effective visual s are the critical components of instructions. Combination of verbal and visual component is useful in instructions. Visuals can be used to illustrate a variety of elements:
· Parts, tooling , equipment
· Sequence of steps
· Positioning of the operator and /or equipment
· Development or change of object or equipment
· Screens and pull down menus in software development.

Professionals prefer keeping visuals as simple as possible in instructions. Drawing are preferred than photographs as they are more clear and can be used to high the main important parts.

Visual and Verbal balance:
Having visuals in instruction to complete the task quickly with less anxiety. For example the book Access for Everyone: A Guide to Accessibility with references to ADAAG[Americans with Disabilities Act Guidelines] balances visual and verbal information.

Accurate visuals:
Visuals should be used as a part of direction and not just a decorative addition. Hence writers and artists should work collaboratively to develop an effective instruction. Appropriate visuals at appropriate place can reduce a lot of misunderstanding. However even relevant pictures of inappropriate size can affect user’s ability to interpret. Visuals should always be labeled with an indication if scale.
Too small, user won’t be able to identify the important parts of the subject. Full view drawing should be accompanied by enlargement of a crucial part.

Primary Visual Instructions
Although sign and symbols are easier to understand, they don’t usually have universal meaning. For example the arrow sign in the carton box may indicate the top of the carton or it may indicate the carton’s most stable position. Color coding plays an important role in emphasis and differentiation between two similar parts.

Safety Standard:
Safety signs emphasizes on legibility rather than information. People don’t read all the information on signs. Distinct colors are used. The color indicates the degree of danger.
Warning Labels and Cartoons: Warning labels and cartoons provide a mean of communicating information to an audience. Cartoons can help the audience to visualize difficult steps and help overcome language and cultural differences for international audiences. However technical writer must be aware of varying interpretation.

Adequacy:
Information on a product should be accurate and adequate. Information can be instruction or warning. Technical professionals should be sure that their work satisfies the legal requirements for adequacy. One should be sure that their work contains enough instruction for the usage of the product and enough warning to potential risks and dangers.

Chapter 19 - Preparing Proposals

Objectives and Outcomes

• Identify types of proposals
• Locate requests for proposals (RFPs)
• Identify the appropriate means of persuasion for the proposal's audience
• Understand the different necessary parts of each type of proposal
• Prepare, organize and write a proposal

Proposals can begin by a company issuing a Request For Proposal (RFP). For example, The Kellogg Foundation is willing to fund plans for research into new sustainable and ecofriendly food systems. Different ecofriendly focus groups might prepare proposals as to why they should be the group to receive the funds. The readers of the proposals expect there to be certain kinds of information in the proposal. This information is:

• Situation. Provide a definition of the problem or opportunity, including information that situates it in the organization.
• Plan. Present a plan for resolving the problem or addressing the opportunity.
• Benefits. Explain probable benefits that will result from adopting the plan.
• Approach. Outline methods for implementing the plan, including management plans, schedule, and costs.
• Evaluation. Identify an evaluation strategy for determining whether the proposed plan works.
• Qualifications. Establish your qualifications for submitting the proposal and implementing the plan.

Characterizing Proposals
A proposal is a form of persuasive writing meant to convince an audience that a proposed plan responds to a problem while being workable, manageable, logically organized and cost efficient. Proposals can have one of the following purposes:

• Solve a problem
• Investigate a subject
• Sell a product of service

Types of Proposals
A solicited proposal is written in response to an RFP. The RFP contains specific information that a successful proposal will contain. These are usually external documents, sent to people outside of the company. If a product or service is needed, these can also be referred to as an invitation to bid, a bid request, a purchase request, an invitation for proposal or a request for quotation.
Sometimes a problem occurs and an RFP is not issued. In these cases, the person that identified the problem has the skill or experience to solve the problem and in turn, writes an unsolicited proposal.
RFPs are not always sent to every organization or company that might want to respond. It is a good idea to keep on the lookout for RFPs in your particular field. (For a list of RFP sources and some examples of RFPs, consult pages 681-683 in your text.)
Using Persuasion in Proposals
Traditionally, persuasion has been identified with appeals to emotion and because of this people feel it is inappropriate for technical communication. However, persuasion doesn't mean manipulation, it means using credible, logical arguments to convince the reader that the writer's views are correct. Technical writers have a responsibility to produce proposals that are ethical, logical, and credible.
Audience Concerns
Your audience must have an idea of what the problem is before they can agree to what you propose. You should identify what the problem is along with your proposed solution in your proposal. Before you can do this, you must do a careful audience analysis to see how it is they perceive the problem so you can put it in the 'right light' so they say. One of the single most important aspects of preparing a proposal is this:
"Establish that the problem or opportunity exists and then clearly show how your plan addresses it."
If you plan proposes a lot of changes or is radical in nature, people will likely dismiss it out of hand, unless you provide reasons as to how your plan will benefit the readers, the problem and the company.
Persuaders' Credibility
After you've established the problem, you must develop your credibility. Why should they pick your proposal over someone else's? Credibility can often be the sole deciding factor. There is a direct relationship between how radical your solution is to your credibility. The crazier your proposal, the more credibility you need to be seriously considered. In fact, gaining the credibility of someone with higher credibility can help you get the contract from your proposal.
Note: This is a political issue, but you should be aware that it can greatly affect your chances of winning.
Logic of Message
After you've addressed the audience's concerns and shown your credibility, you need to make sure your proposal is logical. You must be able to build a sound case, with valid, reliable evidence. After that, prepare yourself to counter any possible opposing views. You can accomplish both of these objectives by reasoning either inductively or deductively.
Induction is reasoning from the specific to the general. You can learn about an entire group of people by studying a few specific representative examples, then applying what you learned to the whole.
Deduction is reasoning from the general to the specific. Deduction is usually applied in a three-part statement:

• Major premise - general statement about an entire group
• Minor premise - statement about an individual within the group
• Logical conclusion - conclusion about the individual

An example of deduction is this:

• In an accident, smaller SUVs are safer than larger SUVs. (major premise: all A are B)
• The Toyota RAV is a small SUV. (minor premise: C is an example of A)
• In an accident, the Toyota RAV will be safer than a larger SUV. (logical conclusion: therefore, all C are B)

Be careful to avoid false deductions, like (All redheads are pale, Marcia has pale skin, therefore Marcia is a redhead.)
Your response to audience needs, awareness of your credibility and building logical arguments will go a long ways towards helping you win the case.
Writing an RFP
If your RFP is poorly planned or written, you will receive the same type of proposals in return. A well written, thought out RFP will generally produce the same type of proposals in return. The following seven points need to be considered when writing an RFP. These steps do not need to be considered linearly.

1. Identify the Problem or Opportunity - Why is it important, who cares about it?
2. Provide Background Information - Include information about your organization as well as information about the specific problem or opportunity.
3. Define the Desired Outcome - What do you want to happen? How will the outcome affect other things in the organization?
4. Specify the Product or Service You Need - Convey what it is you want or need, but leave room for creativity and realize that your perspective will change the further into the outcome you get and you may need to change some things.
5. Require Detailed Information about the Organization and Personnel - Look into the the experience of people working for the proposal company, their available equipment and work history.
6. Provide Process Information - Give essential details about the entire proposal process, such as: Dates, project details to be considered, proposal submitted for consideration, and the criteria you will be using to evaluate the proposals.
7. Establish Criteria for Selection - There is a fantastic chart that shows this much better than I can explain in words on the top of page 691. Check it out.

Preparing Proposals

To prepare a good proposal it is easier if you know why so many are turned out or rejected. Dr. Allen, Chief of the Division of Research grants at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) compiled a list of reasons why over 600 of proposals to the NIH were rejected. These reasons can easily be adapted to other kinds of proposals.

~ Lack of new or original ideas
~ Diffuse, Superficial, or unfocused research plan
~ Lack of knowledge of published relevant work
~ Lack of experience in the essential methodology
~ Uncertainty concerning the future direction
~ Questionable reasoning in the experimental approach
~ Absence of an acceptable scientific rationale
~ Unrealistically large amount of work
~ Insufficient experimental detail
~ Uncritical approach

Planning

Preparing proposals will generally go more smoothly in you plan the project ahead of time. The following guidelines will help.

~ Be aware of deadlines. Submit proposals early if possible. They will not be accepted if they are late.

~ Establish an achievable schedule for completing the proposal.

~ Know the review and evaluation procedure that will be used to assess the document.

~ Analyze the background knowledge and experience of the intended readers/decision makers

once you have the schedule established you need to plan a detailed review of whats expected by studying the RFP carefully. the fallowing guidelines should help the planning.

~ Read and reread the RFP. Characterize the organization (read the mission statement) and analyze the situation.

~ Identify and substantiate the problems or opportunities you are addressing. Include the hot buttons associated with those problems or opportunities.

~ If at all possible, meet with the key people involved to discuss the problem or opportunity.

~ Propose a plan that responds to the problems or addresses the opportunities.

~ Organize the plan in an outline or a flowchart to help you create schedules and budgets.

~ Know the evaluation criteria that will be used to determine acceptance or rejection.

~ Analyze probable competition.

~ Consult with coleagues to receive feed back about the plan.

~ Create a manageable budget for implementing the proposal.

Drafting

When you are ready to begin drafting your proposal you need to turn again to the RFP. These fallowing guidelines may help during your drafting.

~ If an RFP exists, follow it exactly. If no recommended format exists, use the generic one presented in this chapter. If you use the language of the RFP, you demonsrate to the audience that you understand the situation.

~ Establish a clear link between the problem or opportunity you have identified and substantiated and the plan that you are proposing to solve the problem or respond to the opportunity.

~ Provide information about thte implementation of your plan: who, when, how, where, how much,

~ Anticipate and address potential objections.

~ Support your generalizations with specific details and examples. Cite your sources. Use visuals and tables to support or make points when possible.

~ Use a you-attitude when possible and appropriate.

many RFP's use a specific format however others do not. If there is not a structure recommended inquire if one is typically used in the particular business or organization. If no standard exists use the generic structure...

Budgeting

budgets are usually a rather important part of proposals. The budget shows planned expenses and perhaps income, shown in a list or spreadsheet. Typical budgets usually include items such as direct costs, equipment travel, office supplies, and postage. While putting a budget together you need to identify what indirect costs could arise. These overhead expenses can include a percentage of of the expense of operating costs of the facilities, using the service of staff and using specialized equipment.

Most proposals also require a budget narrative, which helps explain each individual item within your budget, linking each one to the implementation and evaluation of your plan. Unless the RFP specifies a specific format for your budget narrative you can use one of these three ways:

1) Add a column to the budget summary or spreadsheet called "Budget Narrative" and provide an explanatory sentence for each line item.

2) Add a footnote reference to each line item and list the explanatory sentences in footnotes directly following the budget itself.

3)Provide a separate subsection in which you explain the rationale for each category (and line items as necessary) in short, coherent paragraphs.

Evaluating

Chapter 18: Preparing Correspondence

Objectives and Outcomes:

-Understand that correspondence, an important kind of technical communication, does not exist in a vacuum, nor does it have rigid format prescriptions.
-Compose correspondence using appropriate planning strategies, selecting appropriate content, and developing an appropriate organization so the document is legible, readable, and usable.
-Present good news in direct (descending) order. Present bad news in indirect (ascending) order.
-Positively influence readers’ perceptions of your professional competence by using direct language, adopting a you-attitude rather than an I- or we-attitude, focusing on readers rather than yourself, and avoiding exclusionary language.
-Understand and respond to the factors in the rhetorical situation that affect the composition and interpretation of correspondence.

Characterizing Correspondence

-Audience: Although notable exceptions exist, correspondence typically address one person or an identified group of people—for example, coworkers, managers, customers and clients, suppliers, and the press.
-Composing and Revising: Because you are usually familiar with your audience’s expectations and your content (queries from you or information for them), correspondence is often written fairly quickly and may not undergo as many revisions as other technical documents.
-Datedness: Because correspondence usually responds to a current situation, the information is most e-mail messages, memos, and letters need to be updated more frequently than other technical documents.

Delivering Correspondence
Headings:
-Check the To line of your e-mail message to confirm that you are responding to the appropriate person or persons (and not to an entire list if you don’t intend to.
-Include a brief descriptive note in the Subject field to aid reading, storing, and searching at the other end. “RE: RE: FWD: RE: Phone Call” is not a descriptive subject line.

Content:
-Cover only one topic per message to make replying, forwarding, or organizing achieved messages easier.

-Keep the message brief and on topic.
-Indicate the content of the original message when replying by quoting pertinent portions or by summarizing the subject. You do not need to copy the entire message.
-Do not respond immediately to a message that upsets you; in all cases, avoid flaming, which is an unprofessional, emotional, and usually rude electronic response. If you would be unprofessional to say the words over the phone or face-to-face, avoid sending them in an electronic message.
Audiences
-Write as if the whole world will read your message, because messages can be easily and accidentally forwarded.
-Confirm that the reciepent actually received and important message by asking for acknowledgement.

Conventions
-Begin with an appropriate saluation such as the person’s name. Do not begin a workplace e-mail with “Hey.” (Sometimes in a rapid-fire series of very short e-mails between a small group of people, salutations may be omitted after the initial identities have been established.)
-Spell and use words with care.
-Avoid emoticons and cutsey, abbreviated spellings in professional correspondence, such as J or “c u” for “see you.”
-Avoid using all caps. This is considered SHOUTING. Use upper- and lowercase text.

Composing E-Mail messages, Memos, and Letters
The following guidelines should help you compose effective correspondence:
-Include a descriptive subject line if appropriate.
-Address your audience directly.
-State objectives or ask questions initially; follow with explanatory material.
-Organize material in direct (descending) order if you anticipate a neutral or positive response.
-Organize material in indirect (ascending) order if you anticipate a negative response.
-Enumerate or bullet items for clarity.
-Be specific about the action (if any) that you want the reader to take.
-End with a friendly comment.

When composing e-mail, memos, and letters you should consider these factors to make your document more comprehensible usable:
-Attitude and tone
-Organization or information
-Format

Domino Effect of Correspondence
Any single message can trigger a series of e-mail messages, memos, and letters. It is all part of the communications process between and within companies.



The first example starts with a complaint letter to Tele-Robics, Inc. from a customer. This is then followed by a series of e-mails and memos. With each one there are specific guidelines and formats to organize the document.
-Complaint Letter from Customer
Audience: customer states complaint early and explicitly.
Professional practice: customer chooses a formal salutation, based on the fact that he doesn’t know the recipient of the letter.
Action: customer asks that the problem be corrected.
Information: customer reviews history of the problem, and states what has been done to try and fix the problem.
Format: customer chose a usable format and a standard block style.

Chapter 16: Creating Process Explanations

Erin Collopy and Tom Wilmes

Objectives and Outcomes

• Understand that process explanations present an overview of sequential actions in chorological order.
• Use process explanations as part of larger documents, including manuals, orientation and training materials, marketing and promotional materials, and public information.
• Use a conventional sequence of technical description, process explanation, and benefits or advantages that an audience can use.
• Prepare effective process explanations.

Defining Processes

Process explanations explain sequential actions to members of an audience who need enough details to understand an action or process, but not enough to necessarily enable them to complete it. These processes must be accurate and accessible to work.

An example of this would be a rubric for a class assignment.

Using Process Explanations

Process explanations often appear in the same kinds of documents as technical descriptions. Here you can decide whether to include the process explanation and what kind of details to include by examining the purpose and task of the document.

-Will the process explanation help accomplish your purpose?

-Will it help the reader understand the process?

• Reports

Provide the audience with background information for understanding critical technical processes. The typical sequence for a report’s introduction is the Technical Description, Process Explanation, and Benefits or Disadvantages.

• Task Manuals

They are used to complete complex tasks accurately.

• Orientation and Training

Managers frequently appreciate simple straightforward process explanations students may need more detailed info

Marketing and Promotional Materials

• Process explanations are best defined in a context of complete information.
• It is more useful to define, describe, and illustrate the background of a process and its materials first, then show them how to do it.

Public Information and Education

• Readers of general interest publications are usually interested in technical information. Not all of these readers may have the knowledge to fully understand the process though. Therefore, one could use more pictures or more text and simpler definitions to convey the message to the reader.

Preparing Processes

Audience and Purpose

• Identifying your audience and their purpose for reading your document or watching your presentation will more fully help you understand how to prepare the process explanation.

Identification of Steps

• An essential part of process explanation is defining the steps. If the time needed to complete a step is important, be sure to include that too.
• The order of steps forms a guideline to easily follow for the process explanation. It will also help in your choice of visuals.

Effective visuals for process explanation

· Flowcharts

· Timelines

· Schedules

· Drawings

· Time-lapse photographs

· Sequential drawings

Diction

· The audience and purpose will affect which language you use. An important decision is to use an active voice or a passive voice. A passive voice when you want to emphasize the recipient of the action. Use an active voice when you want to emphasize the doer of the action.

· Active voice: The automatic timer activated the machine.

· Passive voice: The machine was activated by the timer.

· Notice how the machine is receiving the action in the passive voice and the timer is giving the action in the active voice.

Organization and Format

· Since process explanations are usually chronological, headings and subheadings are effective at telling the reader when the process moves from one step to the next.

· Obviously, the less expert the audience, the less complex the information should be. But, non-experts may need a more careful explanation which could take longer than the experts’ explanation.

· Numbering the steps is also optional, depending on the audiences needs.

Chapter 15

Chapter 15
Creating Technical Descriptions
By: Jake Droessler and Elijah Wreh

Objectives and Outcomes:

-Understand that technical descriptions’ can be used to organize specific details about, substances, mechanisms, organisms, systems, and locations for an identified audience.
-Summarize physical characteristics, answering questions you expect your readers to have about appearance, acceptability, and impact.
-Use technical descriptions in observation notes, manuals and training materials, proposals and reports, marketing and promotional materials, and public information and education.
-Prepare technical descriptions:

-Meet audience needs by answering their questions
-Partition your subject into structural parts and/or functional parts
-Adjust diction to audience needs, choosing accurate terms, and using appropriative
metaphors.
-Choose from a variety of visuals: photographs or realistic drawings, topographic and
Contour maps, phantom views, overlaps, schematics and writing diagrams, cross-
Section maps, exploded views, blueprints.
-Typically use spatial order to give a clear view of appearance and structure.

Defining Technical Description

The word descriptions have many meanings, but in short description summarize physical characteristics, answer questions you expect your readers to look at. Some of the characters of descriptions as are following: substance, mechanism, organism, system, or location. Some of the questions one may include ion their descriptions are: What is it or what are you talking about, the definition of what you talking about, who describe it, the purpose, importance and impact, the characteristics, appearance and parts involved.

Using Technical Description

This aspect of technical description explains when one needs to know how to use technical description. One needs to know when to use technical communication when writing a technical paper, article, or document. You need to also include a detail description about what you are talking about and writing. They are important because they will help you to know whether these descriptions will help in accomplishing your purpose, will a single description help the audience accomplish their purpose, and will the description help stop future problems.

Observation Notes

This part focuses on answering questions that will help in getting description of what you are writing about. After taking down observation notes, the notes, the notes will then will write down so the audience can read them, or may be used as the starting point for a more official document.

Training Materials

This involve the type of descriptive tools been used in description technical writing. It includes the type of system the technical writer will use and put into play. The materials need to be important in other for it play a pivotal role in your writing and give the audience an incite about what you talking about.

Proposals and Reports

The proposals can range in size from a one page letter to several hundred pages of feature specifications. In other words, the writing proposal is a vehicle that carries the terms of an agreement and form parts of the basis for a subsequent paper or document. The reports are incorporated in the description and served as overall aspect of the technical description.

Marketing and Promotional Pieces

Technical descriptions are both informative and persuasive when used in marketing materials. The main points are stressed and other information is put on the specification sheets (specs). These pieces often include visual aids.

Public Information and Education

Public information usually has a lot of description because it consists of details that people need to know. The three main forms of presentation for public information are newspapers, general-interest magazines, and Web sites. This information is usually accompanied by visuals.

Preparing a Technical Description:

Audience’s Task

Technical descriptions should address their intended audience. A writer needs to analyze the purpose of reading the document and identify what questions are expected to be answered:
·Why do users want or need the information? What is their task? In what ways will the information be important?
· Do they need information in order to understand a more detailed discussion that follows? Do they need to make a decision?
· Are users interested in a general overview or a detailed description?
· What details do the users need: Dimensions? Materials? Assembly? Function? Capabilities? Benefits?
Insufficient information will lead to unanswered questions. Use information that responds to the audiences’ probable questions.

Components

In order to describe something you need to separate it into different components. Some confusion can occur when trying to separate. To easily separate something you need to look at two parts:
Functional parts-perform clearly defined tasks in the operation of the device. Although there is one single structural part, it can have multiple functioning parts.

Structural parts-comprise the physical aspects of the device, without regard to purpose.

Diction

Diction of a technical description should be precise, so the information can be verified. To be able to be precise you need to:
1. Choose the most specific terms appropriate for your audience.
2. Choose technically accurate terms.
3. Consider the value of metaphor to convey descriptions.

Audience-appropriate terms

You need to cater your terms to your audience, bring the terms into their level. Not everyone is an expert on the topic so they need to be able to understand what you are talking about.

Accurate Terms

Using accurate terms is another way to be precise in technical descriptions. An example is differentiating between two and three dimensional objects. Is a ball round or is it spherical? By doing this you can avoid confusing your audience.

Figurative Language

Do metaphors, similes, and analogies give your readers a clear description? By looking at this question you can determine if your readers will understand the terms you are using to describe your subject.

Visuals

Using precise visuals is just as important as using precise diction. Visuals help your audience form a mental image of the subject you are describing. Remember to label and title visuals. The purpose of a visual is:
· Visuals give an overview.
· Visuals describe interior components; give an image of the way parts fit together.
· Visuals describe individual parts in relation to the whole; give an image of each individual component.
· Visuals show patterns.

Organization

When preparing a technical description, you need to decide on your sequence of information. Technical descriptions are usually given in spatial order to help the audience have a clear view of appearance and structure. Sometimes chronological order is used; an example would be how to assemble a staples box. Technical descriptions should have a title or a section heading. This gives a good definition and a statement of the purpose or function of the document. You may need to incorporate material elements that will increase interest in the document. Here are some elements that can help you add interest and appeal:

· Background information: What is the history? What are current developments?
· Parts-whole relationships: Where does the object fit in relation to similar ones?
· Qualitative distinctions: What separates it from similar objects?

The body of a technical description should use a part-by-part description arranged in order of location, assembly, or importance. Each section of the body needs to keep the same format.
The conclusion of a technical description needs to explain how the parts fit and function together. To make the conclusion more interesting tries to include the following elements:

· Applications: How is it used?
· Anecdotes or brief narratives: Who uses it?
· Advantages/disadvantages: What are the benefits and/or problems?

Chapter 14

Chapter 14: Creating Definitions

By: Michael Adams

Objectives and Outcomes

• Avoid problems caused by multiple meanings, complexity of meanings, technical jargon, and symbols.
• Create several categories of definitions:
• Informal definitions: synonym, antonym, stipulation, negative, analogy, and illustration
• Formal definitions (species = genus + differentia)
• Operational definitions summarizing steps involved in a function
• Expanded definitions using etymology, history, and examples
• Make appropriate decisions about using definitions in glossaries, information notes, and appendixes

Changes in Word Meanings
Not only do the meanings of words change in life but new words are coming into our language everyday. While writine a technical document you will have to define critical terms and when you do that you will have to make sure you use a definition that your audience can grasp.

Multiple Meanings
Some words will take on different meanings when they are used in different enviroments. For example focus in biology means the localized area a disease is in while when used in earth science it means where the origin of an earthquake is. These multiple meanings can screw up your document especially if your audience is mainly nonexpert professionals. To get by this problem make sure to note who your audience will be and adjust your definition accordingly.


Complexity of Meaning
Complexity can be looked at in two ways, simple or detailed. Your choice on which style to choose relies on the audience and the situation. If it is to long for your audience they may lose track of what the topic of your paper is or they may just not understand because you had made the definition too vauge.

Technical Jargon
This is another thing that will need to be explained and is sometimes looked over when a professional is explaining a topic to someone not in that profession. The best way to explain a piece of jargon sometimes is to do this:

• Perhaps the most dangerous time exists when people are unaware of a robot's dwell-time. (Dwell-time is the time of inactivity between a robots motions)

Symbols
Not all parts of a technical document are verbal and sometimes you may use symbols. It is a very good tip to make sure you have an explaination of the symbols you used somewhere in your document so as to reduce confusion if your document is read by someone without a background in the topic.


Construction of Definitions
Effective definitions can answer many readers questions before they even ask them. After aswering the usual "What is it?" question your definition can answer questions concerning: Physical Appearance, Comparisons, Function, and Operation.

Formal Definition
Because dictionaries use a form of definition called formal definition many readers think that it is the only way to give a simple yet detailed definition of a subject. The format of a formal definition is always the same: Species equals Genus plus differentia.

• For example: A robin is a thrush with a red breast and yellow beak.

Formal definitions can be any where from short and simple like the example or as detailed as an encyclopedia but all of them will share the same format.

Informal Definitions
These are the types of definitions we will use in communications that we usually don't even realize we are using them. There are six types of these defintions: Synonym, Antonym, Negative, Stipulation, Analogy, and Illustration. Three of these will be explained farther because they are very usefull to use in technical documents and in presentations

• Analogies are very useful because they work great when trying to come up with a way to quickly define an object.
• Illustrations are also very useful because there will be times where you have to explain something but by the time you are done as they say a picture is worth a thousand words.
• Stipluations are when you will give examples of how you would use your object normally and are also very usefull.

Operational Definitions
This definition will outline the key steps in a function. Situations that need an operational definition mainly need to answer questions like "How does it work?" Many times this definition will go beyond and help the audience visualize the appearance of your subject too.

Expanded Definitions

Expanded definitions explain and clarify information. They also maintain audience interest and can adapt a document, oral presentation or visual for a wider audience. The most common forms are etymology, history, and examples.

• Presenting the etymology (the linguistic origin) of a term is appropriate for general audiences
• The history of a term is also appropriate for general audiences as well as an audiences with technical experience in that field
• Relevant examples have value to all audiences

Etymology

Etymologies anticipate questions such as: How did this object get its name? or how old is this word? By presenting the linguistic origin of a term sometimes gives insight into its current meanings. Etymology information is found in dictionaries or specialized reference books. Etymologies are a useful part of a definition if knowledge of the original meaning will increase your audiences understanding of the modern meaning and usage.

History

Presenting historical background about the development and use of the term or subject puts its current meaning into perspective. The historical background can cover thousands of years or decades.

Examples

Using specific examples to illustrate the application of a term effectively expands a definition.

Placement of Definitions

Writers of technical material have five basic choices for placing and incorporating definitions, although the choices are not mutually exclusive.

• Glossary
• Information notes and sidebars
• incorporation information
• appendixes
• online help

Glossary

A glossary is a mini-dictionary usually located are the beginning or the end of a technical document. The definitions are usually located on the page were the term initially appears. There are advantages and disadvantages to having the glossary at the beginning or at the end. For instance by having a glossary at the beginning of a technical document the reader may not have a frame of reference and may not be able to judge which terms to focus on.

Information Notes and Sidebars

When readers need extended information it may interrupt the flow of the text if included in the main discussion. Presenting this information as information notes or sidebars gives the reader the option of reading the additional information if they need it.

• Information notes may simply define a term. They also do many other things such as provide examples or cited related studies
• Sidebars provide more elaborate information than footnotes or endnotes

Appendixes

Lengthy documents intended for readers with widely varying backgrounds often have difficulty appealing to the entire range of readers. For example if someone may be confused if a document jumps into a subject that they do not understand. An Appendix can be useful because it can provide nonexperts with much needed information while not boring the experts with information they already know.

Online Help

Online help systems are designed to provide users with information immediately in different formats. Some online help features include:

• an alphabetic index of all help topics available to users of this software
• a list of frequently used topics that often save time
• on screen box that provides hints and wizards (shortcut to common practices)
• a searchable database to answer questions

Virtually all these online help options include various kinds of definitions to assist users who are confused or stuck

Chapter 12 Summary

Chapter 12 Summary: Using Visual Outcomes
By: Michael Jirik and Stephanie Kerkaert

Technical Visuals:

Visuals in contemporary technical documents should have a specific purpose and convey specific content. Not only do visuals attract attention and add appeal, they also strengthen documents in other ways.
1. Visuals can be more specific than text.
2. Well-designed visuals can usually be understood more easily than text.
3. Visuals can be processed more quickly than text.
4. Visuals help readers learn.

Incorporating Visuals:

Incorporating visuals involves balancing and integrating verbal and visual information, adjusting visuals for different audiences, and knowing when to choose visuals instead of text.
Visual/Verbal Combinations:
When deciding on appropriate visual/verbal combinations, there are several choices.

1. All text
2. Text with supporting visuals (More text than visuals)
3. Visuals with supporting text (More visuals than text)
4. All visuals

These proper use of these combinations should be taken into consideration in the following situations:
· When the audience's understanding of the technical content is limited.
· When speed is critical, and reading text would slow the process
· When the process is more clearly illustrated visually

Adapting Visuals to Audiences:
Visuals can be adapted to different audiences by the complexity of content, presentation, and sometimes color and size. Audience members who are not experts need more frequent and simpler visuals than experts. Since non-experts also may not understand visual conventions that experts readily recognize, they may need additional explanations beyond the standard level of titles, legends, and captions.

Conventions in Referencing and Placing Visuals:
Textual Reference- As a general practice, visuals should be referred to in the text. Include adequate information in your text reference such as the figure number and title. Textual references may be embedded references in sentences or parenthetical references.

Labeling- Complete labeling includes identification, title, and caption. The following conventions are generally followed to help readers locate, interpret, and verify visuals:

· If a formal report has more than five visuals or includes visuals that readers would need to access independently from the text, include a list of figures or list of tables at the beginning of the document.
· Include the complete dimensions of objects in each visual, making sure to specify the units of measure or scale.
· Whenever possible, spell out words rather than using abbreviations. If abbreviations are included, use standard ones and include a key.
· Identify the source of the data as well as the graphic designer.

Placement- Place visuals as close as possible following the text reference. Surround visuals with white space to separate them from the text of the document.

Visual Functions:
7 Major Functions of visuals:

1. Provide immediate visual recognition
2. Organize numeric or textual data (i.e. tables and diagrams)
3. Show relationships among numeric or verbal data (i.e. tables, graphs, and diagrams)
4. Define or explain concepts, objects, and processes (i.e. drawings, photographs, and diagrams)
5. Present chronology, sequence, or process (i.e. line graphs, flow charts, organizational charts, and milestone charts)
6. Illustrate appearance or structure, which may include describing objects or mechanisms (i.e. drawings, photographs, maps and diagrams)
7. Identify facilities or locations (i.e. maps, charts, schematics, and blueprints)

Function 1: Provide Immediate Visual Recognition-Some things need rapid visual recognition, and this can be provided by symbols that are used by most countries:
· A solid blue circle with a white symbol signals a safety precaution.
· A yellow triangle with a black band and black graphic warns about whatever is displayed in the triangle.
· A red circle with a slash and black graphic prohibits whatever is under the slash.

Function 2: Organize Numeric or Textual Data-Numeric and textual information identifying the characteristics of ideas, objects, or processes can be displayed in tables. Established conventions for designing and effective table:
· Place columns to be compared next to each other.
· Round number is possible.
· Limit numbers to two decimal places.
· Align decimals in a column.
· Label each column and row.
· Use standard symbols and units of measure.
· Use footnotes for headings that are not self-explanatory.
· Present the table on a single page whenever possible.

Function 3: Show Relationships-Spatial relationships are often depicted in various kinds of maps, although drawing and photographs are also frequently used. Quantitative relationships exist between two or more sets of data that can be displayed using several types of visuals, but the most frequently used are graphs, including line graphs, scatter graphs, pie graphs, bar graphs, and pictorial graphs.

Function 4: Define Concepts, Objects, and Processes-Visuals can be valuable as definitions, which can be more efficient and useful than textual descriptions. Visuals can illustrate details that are difficult to describe, where explaining the same information in words would not be as effective.

Function 5: Present Action or Process
Action can be presented by showing a sequence of drawings, such as the movement of a whale breaching as shown in Figure 12.28 in the text. Action and process may also be depicted by charts. Block charts show divisions and subdivisions of a system or process. An organizational chart shows division of hierarchy. A flowchart shows a sequence of steps in a process and sometimes how long each step takes. Charts provide a basic visual overview.

Function 6: Illustrate Appearance, Structure, or Function
The best way to present physical characteristics visually is to provide diagrams and drawings. Diagrams illustrate the complex physical components and structures of objects, mechanisms, or organisms. Adding labels and color help to enhance diagrams. Drawings can depict the actual appearance of an object or organism. They can delete unnecessary information and be simple to still be effective.

Function 7: Identify Facilities or Locations
Maps are used to show geographic information. They can be categorized into topographic, demographic, agricultural, meteorological, or geological data. Maps can also refer to web sites by providing information to the overview of the website. Maps provide boundaries, symbols, population density, land elevations, and so on. Photographs provide an actual view of a subject. Photos can be taken of objects through a microscope to view details of such small things not able to be seen by the human eye. There can also be aerial and satellite photos.

Conventions in Use of Color
Color can be an extraordinarily powerful tool to help create more effective visuals when the appropriate conventions are followed.

Cautions against Misuse of Color:
Problems to Avoid:
· Overuse of decorative color
· Too much color
· Cultural insensitivity

Suggestions for Appropriate Use of Color:
· Signal Safety: The most widespread international agreement about the use of color is probably with traffic lights. Government agencies and international organizations use color to signal various conditions as well as levels and kinds of dangers.
· Attract attention: Color can attract readers to the topic. A colored drawing will likely attract more attention than a black and white drawing of the same thing.
· Enable accurate identification: Colors can help readers focus on certain features of the object. For example, by using green to symbolize the lymphoid system, the reader can easily distinguish the lymphoid system from other systems of the body.
· Show structure or organization: Using color to relate specific information makes it easier for the readers to understand. They are able to chunck information together.
· Highlight components and their process or movement: Color can show readers a path of movement through a visual and track changes.
· Aid Comprehension: Color can make an image easier to understand. Colors in photographs may be added to create "false colors" to images with shades of gray or pictures already with color may be intensified.
· Influence interpretation: Color influences the way viewers interpret information in visuals such as phase diagrams, which are familiar to chemists, physicists, chemical engineers, and materials scientists.

Color in Designing Electronic Documents:
Color in electronic documents is just as important as color in paper documents. One must consider different elements that will affect the way in which the visual is viewed. Some things to take into consideration is whether the image will be viewed on a screen of higher or lower resolution, in a room with dim or bright lights, and if the document will be printed. If the document might be printed, consider how the color may differ from on screen to on paper and how it might look if it is in black and white.

Chapter 13 Summary

Greg Gehrman and Jake Vorhies

Chapter 13

Designing Electronic Communication

Objectives:

1. Identify the characteristics and features of effective electronic communication
2. Understand the principles of effective design for various electronic media
3. Analyze key aspects of information architecture: organizing, labeling, and navigating
4. Analyze key aspects of effective Web page/screen design: layout, color, and graphics
5. Understand the standards and tools fro designing electronic communication
6. Understand the iterative design process
7. Assess Web sites for usability and accessibility

Characterizing Electronic Communication:

• Interactive and nonlinear: accomplish tasks, sometimes something as simple as accessing information on static web pages.
• Virtual and open: The virtual spaces allow users to move beyond boundaries at will. Standards and conventions are fluid, leading to varied designs and functionality, and often uneven experiences.
• Complex and dynamic: Integrate diverse components.

Types of Electronic Communication:

· Computers

· Cell phones

· PDAs

Web sites and web-enabled environments:

-The World Wide Web is the largest part of the Internet, a huge network comprised of other networks and millions of individual computers. Internet traffic is routed along a number of backbones, which are primary networks owned by organizations and companies.

Audiences and Electronic Communication:

· Reading and Navigating Electronic Communication- Reading electronic media is not simply reading an electronic display of information; instead, it is interactive and brings with it a number of complications.

o Screen and page size- How much the reader can see at one time

o Legibility- How easy it is to read what’s on the screen

o Responsiveness- How quickly should a system respond to users’ actions

o Navigation-How easily can readers navigate the Web site

o Equipment and service- How much are readers constrained by physical realities

· Navigating Electronic Communication- finding different ways to look through the Web site and arriving at the same page.

Principles and Practices of Effective Design:

1. Information Architecture: The Framework that structures content.
2. Page/screen Design: The look and feel of the information in the space on the screen, another mechanism to help users understand information organization context.
3. Content: Is organized and written differently from electronic communication than for traditional print documents.

Information Architecture:

1. Organizing information:
1. Categories of information available to users are determined.
2. Relationships of categories of information are established
3. Pathways through information are created based on judgments about relationships among categories by the designers
4. Points of interaction are established

2. Labeling Information: Labels are pervasive in electronic communication. Labeling information effectively is one of the most important ways that you can assist users of electronic information, because people tend to scan electronic materials for key words.
3. Navigating Information:
1. Menus: Are generally horizontal or vertical lists of links to sections or individual pages within a Web site.
2. Breadcrumb Trails: Are sequential lists of pages that let users know where they are on the site and where they have been in relation to either the site’s home page or their entry point onto the site.
3. Embedded Link: Are links within text that take users to another page or site.

Page/Screen Design:

1. Layout
1. Content:
2. Identification:
3. White Space:
4. Scrolling:

2. Color
3. Graphics
1. JPG image: Joint Photographic Experts Group
2. GIF image: Graphics Interchange Format
3. PNG image: Portable Network Graphic

Developing Effective Content:

· Writing for Electronic Communication

o Be Concise

o Keep chunks of text short

o Use headings and bulleted lists

o Use active voice

o Consider international readers

o Use an “inverted pyramid” structure for organizing information

o Limit in-text links to other sites and provide information about the links you do include.

· Building Credibility

Standards and Tools

· Markup Languages, Scripts, and Programming

o HTML is a system of tags that, when inserted into plain-text documents, tell Web browsers how to display documents.

· Style Sheets and Templates

o Style sheets contain information about elements such as fonts, heading levels, colors, and backgrounds.

o Templates can also be used to manage the layout of Web pages.

· Style Guides

o Include info about the way that particular info is designed and should be maintained.

Understanding the Iterative Design Process

· Planning the Iterative Process- you need to know its purpose and scope, the overall look and feel, the resources you’ll need, limitations you must contend with, and the schedule.

· Analyzing existing sites

o Can cut your planning time by allowing you to identify what works and what doesn’t.

· Creating prototypes of your Web site

o Involves developing mock-ups of ideas for your Web site and brainstorming those ideas with team members, clients, and possibly potential users.

· Coordinating the Process

o Make sure that everyone in the group know what they are doing

Ensuring Usability and Accessibility:

• Understand the opportunities and limitations of the virtual environment and its potential users.
• Know something about the assistive hardware and software available and be aware of how the design of electronic information could impact the technology your audience may be using.
• Concentrate on good design principles and integration rather than on what “cool” things you can do with programming languages, unless those functions help the majority of your audience receive the information and services you are offering.
• Use various methods for providing information so that you accommodate the greatest number of visitors.

Features of Accessible Electronic Communication:

• Provide alternative representation of information
• Use alternative tagging
• Add transcripts and captioning to audio

Individual and Collaborative Assignments:

1. Identify accessibility, comprehensibility, and usability
• Who’s the sponsor?
• Who are the intended audiences?
• How accessible is the site?
• How easy is the site to understand?
• How easy is the site to use?
2. Compare impact of screen size
• What are the differences in screen display?
• What are the differences in the ways content is presented?
• What is gained or lost in the different screen sizes? In content? In convince?
3. Credibility of Web sites
4. Credibility of nonprofit organizations
5. Assess the usability of your university’s Web site
6. Create a prototype for a Web site
7. Consider privacy policies
• How easy is locating the privacy policy?
• Does the site appear to collect information about visitors? If so, what information is collected? How is it collected?
• Does the site appear to share the collected information? With whom and why?
• How can users “opt out” of information collection?
8. Assess Web writing style
• In what ways does the writing conform to principles of effective writing for the Web?
• In what ways does it fail to conform?

Nicky Bleiel

Nicky Bleiel presented to our class on Tuesday September 25 about wikis. She is employed by ComponentOne based out of Pittsburgh, Pa. The trip was a company sponsored event. Prior to speaking for our class she had made a trip to St. Louis, MO where she presented to an STC Chapter.

Knowledge management is the way organizations gather, manage, and use the knowledge that they acquire. The organizations depend on human communication to pass on knowledge. A wiki is a collaborative website that can be edited by anyone who is allowed access. The most commonly used wiki is Wikipedia. Wiki’s give businesses a competitive advantage in the business world. By sharing information between the employees of the company, businesses are able to have a broader knowledge of multiple topics. They stay up to date on current issues, updates, and new changes within the corporation. This saves the company time which enables them to be more productive. It also makes working together in an office setting easier. If members of a team are unable to meet together they can still share their information with each other and get it in a timely fashion.

Wikis are a very useful tool when it comes to knowledge management. In an environment where groups need to work together and coordinate ideas, they are almost essential. Wikis provide a method of sharing information that can be updated or corrected by anyone in the group. This means that information is accurate almost constantly, no matter what circumstances may occur. Another great thing about Wikis is that everyone has access to it. One part of the group may be in Europe, while the other part may be in Florida, but they have access to the same information, while still having the ability to update it.

There are several drawbacks to using a wiki that should be considered. Initially wiki users may have problems with the format and syntax rules associated with the wiki, although editor programs are available and relatively simple. Another problem could be maintaining a navigation/organization that matches site growth, which would entail some type of supervision to ensure data, is entered into appropriate areas and does not have excessive redundancies. This navigation/organization maintenance also is concerned with finding a balance between the original structure of the wiki and how content from the group is used on it. If users are entering their information in different and unexpected ways, the wiki may need to be restructured to comply with these changes. One of the most common concerns with a wiki is that users may use the wiki maliciously, adding false information or obscene content. False information or obscene content pose real problems for wikis which are open for public access on the internet. All of these drawbacks are important points to be considered if someone may be planning on implementing a wiki. These negative aspects of the wiki provide valuable knowledge about the credibility and effectiveness of wikis as internet web sources and areas in which to work.

There is a lot of information about Knowledge Management and opportunities that lie behind the computer screen. There is a move towards wikis and with good reasons. The information that Nikki taught us many important things in her presentation and our class greatly appreciates the time she has taken to come and present to our class.