Chapter 17 Summary

Chapter 17 Summary

Engaging in Oral Communication

Objectives and Outcomes:

Communicate ideas and plans effectively in front of an audience

Decide and select what information needs to go into your presentation

Involve your audience either by asking questions or using notes to keep track of whats going on

Use visual aids that are appropriate for your topic

Create a professional image based on appearance and demeanor; speak loudly enough so the whole audience can hear and understand

Be a good, active listener

Types of Presentations
There are three basic types of presentations, Informal, Formal, and Class presentations.

Informal presentations are usually at work and the audience is either your professional peers or your immediate subordinates or supervisors. Topics of informal presentations usually involve work related issues. For example the book gives the example of the progress you've made designing a curcuit board for a customer. Not much background info is needed because audience is farmiliar with topic and speaker.

Formal presentations take more preparation because the audience is not farmiliar with the speaker and topic so background on yourself and topic is probably needed. A formal presentation could be a couple of experts explaining to possibe customers of a company the benefits of their new product.

Class presentations give students an opportunity to expand their public speaking skills. The other class members can be asked to act as a particular audience so the speaker can get the feel of the real thing.
Audiences

Four Types
Professional peers: Understand field jargon and background information. Presentation should be organized and well detailed. Typically ask more difficult questions at the end.

Nonexpert Professionals: Do not usually understand jargon. Want technical info but not so many technical little details. Listen to recommendations and conclusion.

International Audiences: Appreciate your awareness and respect for their culture. May not understand visual aids and hand signals the way that you intend. Simple and well defined sequence will help tremendously.

General Audiences: Multiple agendas but come together for a common purpose. Like to see clear statement of purpose, defined terms, useful analogies, interesting examples, effective visuals, and clear transitions. Like to be involved.

Involve Listeners
The audience at a presentation might lose interest if not being involved in some way. Ways to involve audience include creating an audience centered atmosphere, encourage active audience involvment, make what you say easy to listen to and remember, and change the pace and structure of your presentation.

Types of Visuals
Chalkboards or white board
Flip Charts
Posters, charts, tables, diagrams, maps, or photos
Slides
Powerpoint
Transparencies
Movies
Physical Models
Demonstrations

Professional Appearance

Things to remember for professional appearance include:
Wear appropriate clothing
Handle notes comfortably
Make eye contact with audience
Handle mistakes smoothly
Relax your hands
Relax your feet
Move naturally
Use the podium comfortably (if available)

Chapter 21

Chapter 21 Team 13
Preparing Instructions and Manuals
Andy Isder & Khushboo Shakya

In this chapter, the term "instructions" refers to all kinds of instructional texts including instructional sheets, electronic help systems, print manuals, training scripts, and tutorials.

Objectives and outcomes
-Ensuring Instructions are useable by combating audience misunderstanding, using principles of adult learning, and confronting aliteracy
-Analyze task, audience, and genre
-Effectively use content elements of instructions
-Provide necessary warnings and cautions

Getting People's Attention

Instructions and manuals have an immediate prupose; to enable users to complete tasks. Three critical concerns:Lack of audience understanding, Adult Learning, and aliteracy can influence whether instructions are actually usuable.

-Begin each instruction with general information to help organize and contextualize it, such as "this instruction is in two parts".
-Simplify the language

Principles of Adult Learning

Adults like to be self directed.Instructions can provide tools for users to self-assess their prior knnowledge and experience and then move to any appropriate place in the instructions.

Adults want a reason for doing or learning something. Instructions can provide reasons for using them as a whole as well as reasons for using subsections.

Adults have prior knowledge and experiences that help them complete tasks. Instructions can use metaphors, analogies, and examples that draw on prior knowledge and experiences.

Adults have goals. Instructions can help users decide how the information fits with their goals.

Adults focus on what is practical and useful. Instructions focus on practical informantion-what, why, and how. They can also identify benefits.

Adults are internally motivated by factors such as relationships and intellectual interests. Instructions can provide users with options-how to approach a task, how to use the information, how to manage problems. Instructions can also address users in a way that encourages them to continue because they'll recieve help.

Addressing Aliteracy

Aliterate can read, but they simply choose not to. They don't want to, don't like to, don't want to take the time to, or don't think they need to. Here are some characteristics of aliteracy.

Scanning text as a regular practive rather than reading tex, whether print or electronic.
Depending on visuals rather than words for information.
Depending on icons, symbols, and logos rather than words for information.
Imbuing color, shape, position, and size with meaning to avoid written language.
Substituting various kinds of electronic communication (for example, Web sites, TV,radio, CD's, audio tapes, movies, videos, DVD's) for printed texts whenever possible.

Considering Task, Audience, and Genre

Analyzing task, audience, and genre is critical as you plan and design instructions. Skipping these analysis reduces the accessibility, comprehensibility, and usability of your instructions.

Analyzing the Task has four catagories
-Actions/behavior of personnel
-Assembly of objects or mechanisms
-Operation of equiptment
-Implementation of a process

Adapting Task to Audience
When chunking and labeling are ignored in instructions, users have difficulty differentiating the background information from the task to be completed and may not be sure what they're actually supposed to do.

Considering Instructions for International Audiences
As the global economy makes products available to more people around the works, instructions need to be acessible to a broad range of users who come from very different cultures and have varying egrees of literacy. Two approaces can adaps instructions to international audiences.
-Provide instructions translated into multiple languages
-Use visuals that are likely to be understood in many cultures
Expect the visuals to carry much of the meaning. The conventions in the illustrations make the steps in the process easy to understand with international icons, numbered steps, human involvement, and close-ups.
-Provide an easy-to-use table of contents or common navigation structure as well as introductory visual maps that help users understand how to use the instructions.
-Be consistent in the way that words, links, and visuals are used.
-If words or visuals work equally well to convey information, choose the visuals. Whenever possible, illistrate text with visuals.

Visual elements:
Effective visual s are the critical components of instructions. Combination of verbal and visual component is useful in instructions. Visuals can be used to illustrate a variety of elements:
· Parts, tooling , equipment
· Sequence of steps
· Positioning of the operator and /or equipment
· Development or change of object or equipment
· Screens and pull down menus in software development.

Professionals prefer keeping visuals as simple as possible in instructions. Drawing are preferred than photographs as they are more clear and can be used to high the main important parts.

Visual and Verbal balance:
Having visuals in instruction to complete the task quickly with less anxiety. For example the book Access for Everyone: A Guide to Accessibility with references to ADAAG[Americans with Disabilities Act Guidelines] balances visual and verbal information.

Accurate visuals:
Visuals should be used as a part of direction and not just a decorative addition. Hence writers and artists should work collaboratively to develop an effective instruction. Appropriate visuals at appropriate place can reduce a lot of misunderstanding. However even relevant pictures of inappropriate size can affect user’s ability to interpret. Visuals should always be labeled with an indication if scale.
Too small, user won’t be able to identify the important parts of the subject. Full view drawing should be accompanied by enlargement of a crucial part.

Primary Visual Instructions
Although sign and symbols are easier to understand, they don’t usually have universal meaning. For example the arrow sign in the carton box may indicate the top of the carton or it may indicate the carton’s most stable position. Color coding plays an important role in emphasis and differentiation between two similar parts.

Safety Standard:
Safety signs emphasizes on legibility rather than information. People don’t read all the information on signs. Distinct colors are used. The color indicates the degree of danger.
Warning Labels and Cartoons: Warning labels and cartoons provide a mean of communicating information to an audience. Cartoons can help the audience to visualize difficult steps and help overcome language and cultural differences for international audiences. However technical writer must be aware of varying interpretation.

Adequacy:
Information on a product should be accurate and adequate. Information can be instruction or warning. Technical professionals should be sure that their work satisfies the legal requirements for adequacy. One should be sure that their work contains enough instruction for the usage of the product and enough warning to potential risks and dangers.

Chapter 19 - Preparing Proposals

Objectives and Outcomes

• Identify types of proposals
• Locate requests for proposals (RFPs)
• Identify the appropriate means of persuasion for the proposal's audience
• Understand the different necessary parts of each type of proposal
• Prepare, organize and write a proposal

Proposals can begin by a company issuing a Request For Proposal (RFP). For example, The Kellogg Foundation is willing to fund plans for research into new sustainable and ecofriendly food systems. Different ecofriendly focus groups might prepare proposals as to why they should be the group to receive the funds. The readers of the proposals expect there to be certain kinds of information in the proposal. This information is:

• Situation. Provide a definition of the problem or opportunity, including information that situates it in the organization.
• Plan. Present a plan for resolving the problem or addressing the opportunity.
• Benefits. Explain probable benefits that will result from adopting the plan.
• Approach. Outline methods for implementing the plan, including management plans, schedule, and costs.
• Evaluation. Identify an evaluation strategy for determining whether the proposed plan works.
• Qualifications. Establish your qualifications for submitting the proposal and implementing the plan.

Characterizing Proposals
A proposal is a form of persuasive writing meant to convince an audience that a proposed plan responds to a problem while being workable, manageable, logically organized and cost efficient. Proposals can have one of the following purposes:

• Solve a problem
• Investigate a subject
• Sell a product of service

Types of Proposals
A solicited proposal is written in response to an RFP. The RFP contains specific information that a successful proposal will contain. These are usually external documents, sent to people outside of the company. If a product or service is needed, these can also be referred to as an invitation to bid, a bid request, a purchase request, an invitation for proposal or a request for quotation.
Sometimes a problem occurs and an RFP is not issued. In these cases, the person that identified the problem has the skill or experience to solve the problem and in turn, writes an unsolicited proposal.
RFPs are not always sent to every organization or company that might want to respond. It is a good idea to keep on the lookout for RFPs in your particular field. (For a list of RFP sources and some examples of RFPs, consult pages 681-683 in your text.)
Using Persuasion in Proposals
Traditionally, persuasion has been identified with appeals to emotion and because of this people feel it is inappropriate for technical communication. However, persuasion doesn't mean manipulation, it means using credible, logical arguments to convince the reader that the writer's views are correct. Technical writers have a responsibility to produce proposals that are ethical, logical, and credible.
Audience Concerns
Your audience must have an idea of what the problem is before they can agree to what you propose. You should identify what the problem is along with your proposed solution in your proposal. Before you can do this, you must do a careful audience analysis to see how it is they perceive the problem so you can put it in the 'right light' so they say. One of the single most important aspects of preparing a proposal is this:
"Establish that the problem or opportunity exists and then clearly show how your plan addresses it."
If you plan proposes a lot of changes or is radical in nature, people will likely dismiss it out of hand, unless you provide reasons as to how your plan will benefit the readers, the problem and the company.
Persuaders' Credibility
After you've established the problem, you must develop your credibility. Why should they pick your proposal over someone else's? Credibility can often be the sole deciding factor. There is a direct relationship between how radical your solution is to your credibility. The crazier your proposal, the more credibility you need to be seriously considered. In fact, gaining the credibility of someone with higher credibility can help you get the contract from your proposal.
Note: This is a political issue, but you should be aware that it can greatly affect your chances of winning.
Logic of Message
After you've addressed the audience's concerns and shown your credibility, you need to make sure your proposal is logical. You must be able to build a sound case, with valid, reliable evidence. After that, prepare yourself to counter any possible opposing views. You can accomplish both of these objectives by reasoning either inductively or deductively.
Induction is reasoning from the specific to the general. You can learn about an entire group of people by studying a few specific representative examples, then applying what you learned to the whole.
Deduction is reasoning from the general to the specific. Deduction is usually applied in a three-part statement:

• Major premise - general statement about an entire group
• Minor premise - statement about an individual within the group
• Logical conclusion - conclusion about the individual

An example of deduction is this:

• In an accident, smaller SUVs are safer than larger SUVs. (major premise: all A are B)
• The Toyota RAV is a small SUV. (minor premise: C is an example of A)
• In an accident, the Toyota RAV will be safer than a larger SUV. (logical conclusion: therefore, all C are B)

Be careful to avoid false deductions, like (All redheads are pale, Marcia has pale skin, therefore Marcia is a redhead.)
Your response to audience needs, awareness of your credibility and building logical arguments will go a long ways towards helping you win the case.
Writing an RFP
If your RFP is poorly planned or written, you will receive the same type of proposals in return. A well written, thought out RFP will generally produce the same type of proposals in return. The following seven points need to be considered when writing an RFP. These steps do not need to be considered linearly.

1. Identify the Problem or Opportunity - Why is it important, who cares about it?
2. Provide Background Information - Include information about your organization as well as information about the specific problem or opportunity.
3. Define the Desired Outcome - What do you want to happen? How will the outcome affect other things in the organization?
4. Specify the Product or Service You Need - Convey what it is you want or need, but leave room for creativity and realize that your perspective will change the further into the outcome you get and you may need to change some things.
5. Require Detailed Information about the Organization and Personnel - Look into the the experience of people working for the proposal company, their available equipment and work history.
6. Provide Process Information - Give essential details about the entire proposal process, such as: Dates, project details to be considered, proposal submitted for consideration, and the criteria you will be using to evaluate the proposals.
7. Establish Criteria for Selection - There is a fantastic chart that shows this much better than I can explain in words on the top of page 691. Check it out.

Preparing Proposals

To prepare a good proposal it is easier if you know why so many are turned out or rejected. Dr. Allen, Chief of the Division of Research grants at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) compiled a list of reasons why over 600 of proposals to the NIH were rejected. These reasons can easily be adapted to other kinds of proposals.

~ Lack of new or original ideas
~ Diffuse, Superficial, or unfocused research plan
~ Lack of knowledge of published relevant work
~ Lack of experience in the essential methodology
~ Uncertainty concerning the future direction
~ Questionable reasoning in the experimental approach
~ Absence of an acceptable scientific rationale
~ Unrealistically large amount of work
~ Insufficient experimental detail
~ Uncritical approach

Planning

Preparing proposals will generally go more smoothly in you plan the project ahead of time. The following guidelines will help.

~ Be aware of deadlines. Submit proposals early if possible. They will not be accepted if they are late.

~ Establish an achievable schedule for completing the proposal.

~ Know the review and evaluation procedure that will be used to assess the document.

~ Analyze the background knowledge and experience of the intended readers/decision makers

once you have the schedule established you need to plan a detailed review of whats expected by studying the RFP carefully. the fallowing guidelines should help the planning.

~ Read and reread the RFP. Characterize the organization (read the mission statement) and analyze the situation.

~ Identify and substantiate the problems or opportunities you are addressing. Include the hot buttons associated with those problems or opportunities.

~ If at all possible, meet with the key people involved to discuss the problem or opportunity.

~ Propose a plan that responds to the problems or addresses the opportunities.

~ Organize the plan in an outline or a flowchart to help you create schedules and budgets.

~ Know the evaluation criteria that will be used to determine acceptance or rejection.

~ Analyze probable competition.

~ Consult with coleagues to receive feed back about the plan.

~ Create a manageable budget for implementing the proposal.

Drafting

When you are ready to begin drafting your proposal you need to turn again to the RFP. These fallowing guidelines may help during your drafting.

~ If an RFP exists, follow it exactly. If no recommended format exists, use the generic one presented in this chapter. If you use the language of the RFP, you demonsrate to the audience that you understand the situation.

~ Establish a clear link between the problem or opportunity you have identified and substantiated and the plan that you are proposing to solve the problem or respond to the opportunity.

~ Provide information about thte implementation of your plan: who, when, how, where, how much,

~ Anticipate and address potential objections.

~ Support your generalizations with specific details and examples. Cite your sources. Use visuals and tables to support or make points when possible.

~ Use a you-attitude when possible and appropriate.

many RFP's use a specific format however others do not. If there is not a structure recommended inquire if one is typically used in the particular business or organization. If no standard exists use the generic structure...

Budgeting

budgets are usually a rather important part of proposals. The budget shows planned expenses and perhaps income, shown in a list or spreadsheet. Typical budgets usually include items such as direct costs, equipment travel, office supplies, and postage. While putting a budget together you need to identify what indirect costs could arise. These overhead expenses can include a percentage of of the expense of operating costs of the facilities, using the service of staff and using specialized equipment.

Most proposals also require a budget narrative, which helps explain each individual item within your budget, linking each one to the implementation and evaluation of your plan. Unless the RFP specifies a specific format for your budget narrative you can use one of these three ways:

1) Add a column to the budget summary or spreadsheet called "Budget Narrative" and provide an explanatory sentence for each line item.

2) Add a footnote reference to each line item and list the explanatory sentences in footnotes directly following the budget itself.

3)Provide a separate subsection in which you explain the rationale for each category (and line items as necessary) in short, coherent paragraphs.

Evaluating